Jesus

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Jesus of Nazareth (Template:IPAc-en; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity, and is also regarded as an important prophet of God in Islam. Most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated and believe that he rose from the dead after being crucified.<ref>Newbigin (1989) p. 66 "the whole of Christian teaching would fall to the ground if it were the case that the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus were not events in real history but stories told to illustrate truths which are valid apart from these happenings."</ref><ref name="Grudem">Grudem (1994) pp. 568–603</ref> The principal sources of information regarding Jesus are the Bible's four canonical gospels,<ref name="ActJIntro"> Template:Cite book </ref> which most biblical scholars find useful for reconstructing Jesus' life and teachings.<ref name="5GIntro">Template:Cite book </ref><ref name="Harris HJ"> Template:Cite book </ref><ref name="EJ"> Template:Cite book </ref><ref> Examples of authors who argue the Jesus myth theory:

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite journal

</ref> Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref>Van Voorst (2000) pp. 39–42</ref><ref name=Niswonger121 />

Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate.<ref name="brown964"> Brown (1994) p. 964
Carson (1992) et al., pp. 50–56.
Cohen (1987), Template:Nowrap.
Crossan (1993), pp. xi–xiii.
Grant (1977), Template:Nowrap.
Fredriksen (1999), Template:Nowrap.
Meier (1991), Template:Nowrap.
Meier (1994), pp. 12–13.
Vermes (1973), p. 37.
Template:Cite book
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Template:Cite book </ref><ref name="autogenerated19"/><ref name="voorst16" /><ref name=JDunn339/> Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation.<ref name="TM1998 1">Theissen (1998) pp. 1–16</ref><ref name=Dunn47 >Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 pages 47-49</ref><ref name=ScottK117 /><ref name="Fredriksen">Fredriksen (2000) pp. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266</ref>

Christians traditionally believe that Jesus was born of a virgin, performed miracles, founded the Church, died sacrificially to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into heaven, from which he will return.<ref name="Grudem" /> The majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, and the Second Person of the Holy Trinity.<ref name="NWTrin">Template:Cite encyclopedia </ref> A few Christian groups, however, reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, believing it to be non-scriptural.<ref name="NWTrin" /><ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Most Christian scholars today present Jesus as the awaited Messiah promised in the Old Testament and as God,<ref>For instance Template:Cite book</ref> arguing that he fulfilled many Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In Islam, Jesus (in Template:Lang-ar in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Template:Transl) is considered one of God's important prophets,<ref>Template:Cite book </ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> a bringer of scripture, and the product of a virgin birth, but not the victim of crucifixion.<ref>Template:Cite webTemplate:Dead link </ref> Islam and the Bahá'í Faith use the title "Messiah" for Jesus,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> but do not teach that he was God incarnate. Template:TOC limit

Contents 1 Etymology of name 2 Chronology 2.1 Year of birth 2.2 Years of ministry 2.3 Year of death 3 Life and teachings in the New Testament 3.1 Canonical gospel accounts 3.1.1 Gospel sources, similarities and differences 3.1.2 Key elements and the five major milestones 3.2 Genealogy and Nativity 3.2.1 Genealogy 3.2.2 Nativity 3.3 Early life and profession 3.4 Baptism and temptation 3.5 Ministry 3.6 Teachings and preachings 3.7 Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration 3.8 Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death 3.8.1 Final entry into Jerusalem 3.8.2 Last Supper 3.8.3 Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrest 3.8.4 Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate 3.8.5 Crucifixion and burial 3.9 Resurrection and ascension 3.10 Title attributions 4 Historical views 4.1 Existence 4.2 Language, race and appearance 4.3 Depictions 4.4 Analysis of the gospels 4.5 Historical analysis 4.5.1 Historicity of events 4.5.2 Role of archaeology 4.6 First century Jewish religious movements 4.7 Mythical view 5 Religious perspectives 5.1 Christian views 5.2 Jewish views 5.3 Islamic views 5.3.1 Ahmadiyya views 5.4 Bahá'í views 5.5 Other views 5.6 Criticism 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links

Etymology of name

Template:Jesus Template:Further

"Jesus" is a transliteration, occurring in a number of languages and based on the Latin Iesus, of the Greek Template:Lang (Template:Lang), itself a hellenization of the Hebrew Template:Lang (Yĕhōšuă‘, Joshua) or Hebrew-Aramaic Template:Lang (Yēšûă‘), both meaning "Yahweh delivers" or "Yahweh rescues". In Arabic, it is Template:Rtl-lang.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Liddell >Template:Cite book</ref>

The etymology of the name Jesus in the context of the New Testament is generally expressed as "Yahweh saves",<ref name=Hurtado392 >Larry W. Hurtado, 2005 Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity ISBN 978-0-8028-3167-5 page 392</ref><ref name=Green88 >The Gospel of Luke by Joel B. Green 1997 ISBN 0-8028-2315-7 page 88</ref><ref>Reading Matthew: a literary and theological commentary by David E. Garland 1999 ISBN 1-57312-274-2 page 23</ref> "Yahweh is salvation"<ref name=France78 >The Gospel of Matthew by R. T. France 2007 ISBN 0-8028-2501-X page 78</ref><ref name=Davies155 >Matthew 1-7 by William David Davies, Dale C. Allison 2004 ISBN 0-567-08355-1 page 155</ref> and at times as "Jehovah is salvation".<ref name=Cathency >Template:Cite web</ref> The name Jesus appears to have been in use in Judaea at the time of the birth of Jesus.<ref name=Cathency /><ref name=Hare >Matthew by Douglas Hare 2009 ISBN 0-664-23433-X page 11</ref> Philo's reference (Mutatione Nominum item 121) indicates that the etymology of Joshua was known outside Judaea at the time.<ref name=Davies >Matthew 1-7 by William David Davies, Dale C. Allison 2004 ISBN 0-567-08355-1 page 209</ref>

In the New Testament, in Luke 1:26-33, the angel Gabriel tells Mary to name her child "Jesus", and in Matthew 1:21 an angel tells Joseph to name the child "Jesus". The statement in Matthew 1:21 "you are to give him the name Jesus, because he will save his people from their sins" associates salvific attributes to the name Jesus in Christian theology.<ref name=Phillips147 >Bible explorer's guide by John Phillips 2002 ISBN 0-8254-3483-1 page 147</ref><ref>All the Doctrines of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 1988 ISBN 0-310-28051-6 page 159</ref>

"Christ" (Template:IPAc-en) is derived from the Greek Template:Lang (Khrīstos), meaning "the anointed" or "the anointed one", a translation of the Hebrew Template:Lang (Template:Unicode), usually transliterated into English as "Messiah" (Template:IPAc-en).<ref>Template:CathEncy</ref><ref name="Vine1940">Template:Cite book pp 274-275</ref> In the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible (written well over a century before the time of Jesus), the word "Christ" (Template:Lang) was used to translate the Hebrew word "Messiah" (Template:Lang) into Greek.<ref>Jesus of history, Christ of faith by Thomas Zanzig 2000 ISBN 0-88489-530-0 page 314</ref> In Matthew 16:16, the apostle Peter's profession "You are the Christ" identifies Jesus as the Messiah.<ref name=Ekstrand147 >Christianity by Donald W. Ekstrand 2008 ISBN 1-60477-929-2 pages 147-150</ref> In postbiblical usage, "Christ" became viewed as a name, one part of "Jesus Christ", but originally it was a title ("Jesus the Anointed").<ref name=Pannenberg30 >Jesus God and Man by Wolfhart Pannenberg 1968 ISBN 0-664-24468-8 pages 30-31</ref><ref>Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions by Wendy Doniger 2000 ISBN 0-87779-044-2 page 212</ref><ref>Theology of the New Testament by Rudolf Karl Bultmann 2007 ISBN 1-932792-93-7 page 80</ref>

Chronology

Template:Main [[File:First century palestine.gif|thumb|right|300px|Judaea and Galilee at the time of Jesus.]] Although a few scholars have questioned the existence of Jesus as an actual historical figure,<ref name="Durant 1944:553–7">Durant 1944:553–7.</ref> and some early Christian sects denied that Jesus existed as a physical being (see below), most scholars involved with historical Jesus research believe his existence, but that the supernatural claims associated with him cannot be established using documentary and other evidence.<ref name="voorst16">Van Voorst (2000) p. 16</ref><ref name=CambridgeJesus >The Cambridge companion to Jesus by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1 pages 123-124. Page 124 state that the "farfetched theories that Jesus' existence was a Christian invention are highly implausible."</ref><ref name="powell168">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="weaver71">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="guardian1">Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="britac2006">Template:Cite web</ref> As discussed in the sections immediately below, the estimation of the year of death of Jesus places his lifespan around the beginning of the 1st century AD/CE, in the geographic region of Roman Judaea.<ref name=Theissen64 /><ref name=Theissen81 /><ref name="Green1997" /><ref name=Pratt /><ref name="nature.com" />

Roman involvement in Judaea began around 63 BC/BCE and by 6 AD/CE Judaea had become a Roman province.<ref name=Spielvogel /> From 26–37 AD/CE Pontius Pilate was the governor of Roman Judaea.<ref>Pontius Pilate in history and interpretation by Helen Katharine Bond 1999 ISBN 0-521-63114-9 pages 1-2</ref> In this time period, although Roman Judaea was strategically positioned in the Near East, close to Arabia and North Africa, it was not viewed as a critically important province by the Romans.<ref>Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 years of Roman-Judaean relations by Martin Sicker 2001 ISBN 0-275-97140-6 pages ix-xii</ref><ref>The Jews under Roman rule by E. Mary Smallwood 2001 ISBN 0-391-04155-X page 144</ref> At the time the Romans were highly tolerant of other religions and allowed the local populations such as the Jews to practice their own faiths.<ref name=Spielvogel >Western Civilization: A Brief History by Jackson J. Spielvogel 2010 ISBN 0-495-57147-4 pages 123-124</ref>

Year of birth

Template:Further Two independent approaches have been used to estimate the year of the birth of Jesus, one by analyzing the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew along with other historical data, the other by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus, as also discussed in the next section.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Niswonger121 >New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 121-124</ref>

In its Nativity account, the Gospel of Matthew associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of Herod the Great, who is generally believed to have died around 4 BC/BCE.<ref name=Niswonger121 /><ref name=Rahner731 >Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 page 731</ref> Template:Bibleverse states that: "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king" and Template:Bibleverse mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus.<ref name=Niswonger121 /> Matthew also suggests that Jesus may have been as much as two years old at the time of the visit of the Magi and hence even older at the time of Herod's death.<ref>Template:Cite document</ref> But the author of Luke also describes the birth as taking place during the first census of the Roman provinces of Syria and Iudaea, which is generally believed to have occurred in 6 AD/CE.<ref>Vermes (2006) p. 22</ref> Most scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC/BCE.<ref>Template:Cite document</ref> Other scholars assume that Jesus was born sometime between 7–2 BC/BCE.<ref>Some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range include Carson et. al. (1992) pp. 54, 56
Grant (1977) p. 71.
Meier (1991) p. 214.
Sanders (1993), pp. 10–11
Witherington (1998) No. 3:12–20.</ref>

The year of birth of Jesus has also been estimated in a manner that is independent of the Nativity accounts, by using information in the Gospel of John to work backwards from the statement in Template:Bibleverse that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /> As discussed in the section below, by combining information from Template:Bibleverse and Template:Bibleverse with the writings of Flavius Josephus, it has been estimated that around 27–29 AD/CE, Jesus was "about thirty years of age".<ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Scarola /> Some scholars thus estimate the year 28 AD/CE to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and the birth year of Jesus to be around 6–4 BC/BCE.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Novak302 >Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN 1-56338-347-0 pages 302-303</ref>

However, the common Gregorian calendar method for numbering years, in which the current year is 2013, is based on the decision of a monk Dionysius in the sixth century, to count the years from a point of reference (namely, Jesus’ birth) which he placed sometime between 2 BC and 1 AD.<ref>Blackburn, Bonnie; Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. The Oxford companion to the Year: An exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.</ref> Although Christian feasts related to the Nativity have had specific dates (e.g. December 25 for Christmas) there is no historical evidence for the exact day or month of the birth of Jesus.<ref>Aspects of the liturgical year in Cappadocia (325-430) by Jill Burnett Comings 2005 ISBN 0-8204-7464-9 pages 61-71</ref><ref>Faith & philosophy of Christianity by Maya George 2009 ISBN 81-7835-720-8 page 287</ref><ref>Stories of Jesus' Birth by Edwin D. Freed 2004 ISBN 0-567-08046-3 pages 136-137</ref>

Years of ministry

[[File:Jerus-n4i.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Israel Museum model of Herod's Temple, referred to in Template:Bibleverse.]] There have been different approaches to estimating the date of the start of the ministry of Jesus.<ref name=Kostenberger140 >The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 114</ref><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Scarola >Jack V. Scarola, "A Chronology of the nativity Era" in Chronos, kairos, Christos 2 by Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman 1998 ISBN 0-86554-582-0 pages 61-81</ref><ref>Luke 1-5: New Testament Commentary by John MacArthur, Jr. 2009 ISBN 978-0-8024-0871-6 page 201</ref> One approach, based on combining information from the Gospel of Luke with historical data about Emperor Tiberius yields a date around 28–29 AD/CE, while a second independent approach based on statements in the Gospel of John along with historical information from Josephus about the Temple in Jerusalem leads to a date around 27–29 AD/CE.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Scarola /><ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Knoblet /><ref name=sourceexplain >Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible states that Jesus began his ministry "ca 28 AD" at "ca age 31". In Chronos, kairos, Christos: Paul L. Maier specifically states that he considers the Temple visit date in John at "around 29 AD/CE", using various factors that he summarizes in a chronology table. Maier's table considers 28 AD/CE to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus, and at http://www.mtio.com/articles/aissar30.htm Paul Meir clearly states that 5 BC/BCE was the year of birth of Jesus. Paul N. Anderson dates the temple incident at "around 26-27 AD/CE" Jerry Knoblet estimates the date as around AD 27 AD/CE. In their book, Robert Fortna & Thatcher estimate the date at around AD/CE 28. Köstenberger & Kellum (page 140) make the same statement as Maier, namely that the 32nd birthday of Jesus was around 28 AD/CE when his ministry began.</ref> A third method uses the date of the death of John the Baptist and the marriage of Herod Antipas to Herodias based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it to Template:Bibleverse.<ref name=AmyJill55 >Craig Evans, 2006 "Josephus on John the Baptist" in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 pages 55-58</ref><ref name=fox25 /><ref name=Bromiley694 >International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 pages 694-695</ref>

The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of Luke relies on the statement in Template:Bibleverse that the ministry of John the Baptist which preceded that of Jesus began "in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar".<ref name=Eerdmans246 /> Given that Tiberius began his reign in 14 AD/CE, this yields a date about 28–29 AD/CE.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Novak302 /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Luke states that John's ministry began in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judaea, and Herod was tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip was tetrarch of the region of Iturea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias was tetrarch of Abilene, during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas.</ref>

The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of John uses the statements in Template:Bibleverse that Jesus went to the Temple in Jerusalem around the start of his ministry and in Template:Bibleverse that "Forty and six years was this temple in building" at that time.<ref name=ChronosPaul >Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pages 113-129</ref><ref name=Eerdmans246 >Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible 2000 Amsterdam University Press ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 249</ref> According to Josephus (Ant 15.380) the temple reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 15th–18th year of his reign at about the time that Augustus arrived in Syria (Ant 15.354).<ref name="Kostenberger140"/><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref>Encyclopedia of the historical Jesus by Craig A. Evans 2008 ISBN 0-415-97569-7 page 115</ref><ref>As stated by Köstenberger & Kellum (page 114) there is some uncertainty about how Josephus referred to and computed dates, hence various scholars arrive at slightly different dates for the exact date of the start of the Temple construction, varying by a few years in their final estimation of the date of the Temple visit.</ref> Temple expansion and reconstruction was ongoing, and it was in constant reconstruction until it was destroyed in 70 AD/CE by the Romans.<ref>Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, page 246 states that Temple construction never completed, and that the Temple was in constant reconstruction until it was destroyed in 70 AD/CE by the Romans, and states that the 46 years should refers to the actual number of year from the start of the construction.</ref> Given that it took 46 years of construction, the Temple visit in the Gospel of John has been estimated at around 27–29 AD/CE.<ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=PAnderson200 >The Riddles of the Fourth Gospel: An Introduction to John by Paul N. Anderson 2011 ISBN 0-8006-0427-X page 200</ref><ref name=Knoblet >Herod the Great by Jerry Knoblet 2005 ISBN 0-7618-3087-1 page 184</ref><ref name=sourceexplain /><ref>Jesus in Johannine tradition by Robert Tomson Fortna, Tom Thatcher 2001 ISBN 978-0-664-22219-2 page 77</ref>

Although both the gospels and Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, they differ on the details, e.g. whether this act was a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias, as indicated in Template:Bibleverse, or a pre-emptive measure by Herod which possibly took place before the marriage, as Josephus suggests in Ant 18.5.2.<ref name=Leslie508 >Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607-856-6 pages 508-509</ref><ref>Women in scripture by Carol Meyers, Toni Craven and Ross Shepard Kraemer 2001 ISBN 0-8028-4962-8 pages 92-93</ref><ref>Herod Antipas in Galilee: The Literary and Archaeological Sources by Morten H. Jensen 2010 ISBN 978-3-16-150362-7 pages 42-43</ref><ref name=Cyndy48 >The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective by Cynthia White 2010 ISBN 0-8006-9747-2 page 48</ref> The exact year of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias is subject to debate among scholars.<ref name=fox25 >Herodias: at home in that fox's den by Florence Morgan Gillman 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5108-9 pages 25-30</ref> In his analysis of Herod's life, Harold Hoehner estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably occurred around AD 30–31.<ref>Herod Antipas by Harold W. Hoehner 1983 ISBN 0-310-42251-5 page 131</ref> The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia estimates the death of the Baptist to have occurred about AD 31–32.<ref name=Bromiley694 /> The death of John the Baptist relates to the end of the major Galilean ministry of Jesus, just before the half way point in the gospel narratives, before the start of Jesus' final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.<ref>The Gospel of Matthew by Rudolf Schnackenburg 2002 ISBN 0-8028-4438-3 page 104</ref><ref name=Mercer459 >Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 459</ref><ref name=Mercer459 /><ref>The Cambridge companion to the Gospels by Stephen C. Barton ISBN 0-521-00261-3 pages 132-133</ref>

Template:Bibleverse states that at the start of his ministry Jesus was "about 30 years of age", but the other gospels do not mention a specific age. However, in Template:Bibleverse the Jews exclaimed to Jesus: "Thou art not yet fifty years old, and hast thou seen Abraham?" suggesting that he was much less than 50 years old during his ministry.<ref name=ChronosPaul /> The length of the ministry is subject to debate, based on the fact that the synoptic gospels mention only one passover during Jesus' ministry, often interpreted as implying that the ministry lasted approximately one year, whereas the Gospel of John records multiple passovers, implying that his ministry may have lasted at least three years.<ref name="Kostenberger140"/><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Stanton185 >Graham Stanton, 2002, The Gospels and Jesus ISBN 0-19-924616-5 page 185</ref>

Year of death

[[File:Josephus Antiquitates Iudaice.jpg|thumb|upright|A 1466 copy of Antiquities of the Jews.]]

A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the death of Jesus, including information from the canonical gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul the Apostle in the New Testament correlated with historical events, as well as different astronomical models, as discussed below.

All four canonical gospels report that Jesus was crucified at Calvary during the prefecture of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect who governed Judaea from 26 to 36 AD/CE. The late 1st century Jewish historian Josephus,<ref name=Theissen64 >Theissen (1998) pp. 64–72</ref> writing in Antiquities of the Jews (c. 93 AD/CE), and the early 2nd century Roman historian Tacitus,<ref name=Theissen81 >Theissen (1998) pp. 81-83</ref> writing in The Annals (c. 116 AD/CE), also state that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus, though both writers use the title "procurator" instead of "prefect".<ref name="Green1997">Template:Cite book</ref>

The estimation of the date of the conversion of Paul places the death of Jesus before this conversion, which is estimated at around 33–36 AD/CE.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner /> (Also see the estimation of the start of Jesus' ministry as a few years before this date above). The estimation of the year of Paul's conversion relies on a series of calculations working backwards from the well established date of his trial before Gallio in Achaea Greece (Template:Bibleverse) around 51–52 AD/CE, the meeting of Priscilla and Aquila which were expelled from Rome about 49 AD/CE and the 14-year period before returning to Jerusalem in Template:Bibleverse.<ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=Kostenberger77 /><ref name=Riesner >Paul's early period: chronology, mission strategy, theology by Rainer Riesner 1997 ISBN 978-0-8028-4166-7 page 19-27 (page 27 has a table of various scholarly estimates)</ref> The remaining period is generally accounted for by Paul's missions (at times with Barnabas) such as those in Template:Bibleverse and Template:Bibleverse, resulting in the 33–36 AD/CE estimate.<ref name=Barnett19 >Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times by Paul Barnett 2002 ISBN 0-8308-2699-8 pages 19-21</ref><ref name=Kostenberger77 >The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 77-79</ref><ref name=Riesner />

For centuries, astronomers and scientists have used diverse computational methods to estimate the date of crucifixion, Isaac Newton being one of the first cases.<ref name=Pratt /> Newton's method relied on the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon and he suggested the date as Friday, April 23, 34 AD/CE.<ref>Newton, Isaac (1733). "Of the Times of the Birth and Passion of Christ", in Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John</ref> In 1990 astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer computed the date as Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> In 1991, John Pratt stated that Newton's method was sound, but included a minor error at the end. Pratt suggested the year 33 AD/CE as the answer.<ref name=Pratt >Template:Cite journal</ref> Using the completely different approach of a lunar eclipse model, Humphreys and Waddington arrived at the conclusion that Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE was the date of the crucifixion.<ref name="nature.com">Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, "Dating the Crucifixion ," Nature 306 (December 22/29, 1983), pp. 743-46.[1]</ref><ref name=HumWadJASA>Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, The Date of the Crucifixion Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[2]</ref><ref>Colin Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, p. 193 (However note that Humphreys places the Last Supper on a Wednesday)</ref>

Life and teachings in the New Testament

Template:See also

Although the four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the main sources for the biography of Jesus’ life, other parts of the New Testament, such as the Pauline epistles which were likely written decades before them, also include references to key episodes in his life such as the Last Supper, as in 1 Corinthians 11:23-26.<ref name=Blomb442 /><ref name=Fahlbusch52 /><ref name=CEvans465 >The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 pages 465-477</ref> The Acts of the Apostles (10:37-38 and 19:4) refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation by John the Baptist.<ref name="autogenerated362">The Book of the Acts by Frederick Fyvie Bruce 1988 ISBN 0-8028-2505-2 page 362</ref><ref name="autogenerated2003">Who is Jesus?: an introduction to Christology by Thomas P. Rausch 2003 ISBN 978-0-8146-5078-3 page</ref> And Acts 1:1-11 says more about the Ascension episode (also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16) than the canonical gospels.<ref name=Evans521 /><ref name=Zuck91 />

According to the majority viewpoint, the Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus.<ref name = "Sanders">Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993.</ref><ref name="Vermes">Vermes, Geza. The authentic gospel of Jesus. London, Penguin Books. 2004.</ref><ref>"The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus." "Jesus Christ." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 Nov. 2010 [3].</ref> and of the religious movement he founded, but not everything contained in the gospels is considered to be historically reliable.<ref>Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) p. 5,</ref><ref name="Charles H. Talbert pg 42">Charles H. Talbert, What Is a Gospel? The Genre of Canonical Gospels pg 42 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977).</ref><ref name="Jesus 1995">“The Historical Figure of Jesus," Sanders, E.P., Penguin Books: London, 1995, p., 3.</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Fire of Mercy, Heart of the Word (Vol. II): Meditations on the Gospel According to St. Matthew – Dr Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis, Ignatius Press, Introduction</ref><ref name="religion-online.org">Grant, Robert M., "A Historical Introduction to the New Testament" (Harper and Row, 1963) http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1116&C=1230</ref> Elements whose historical authenticity are disputed include the two accounts of the Nativity of Jesus, as well as the resurrection and certain details about the crucifixion.<ref>Who is Jesus? Answers to your questions about the historical Jesus, by John Dominic Crossan, Richard G. Watts (Westminster John Knox Press 1999), page 108</ref><ref>James G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) page 779-781.</ref><ref>Rev. John Edmunds, 1855 The seven sayings of Christ on the cross Thomas Hatchford Publishers, London, page 26</ref><ref name="Staggs">Stagg, Evelyn and Frank. Woman in the World of Jesus. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978 ISBN 0-664-24195-6</ref><ref name = "ActJTomb">Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Empty Tomb, Appearances & Ascension" p. 449-495.</ref><ref>Bruce M. Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: Template:Bibleref2 is missing in some important early witnesses, Template:Bibleref2 varies between the Alexandrian and Western versions.</ref> On one extreme, some Christian scholars maintain that the gospels are inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus.<ref>Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994); pages 90-91</ref> On the other extreme, some scholars have concluded that the gospels provide no historical information about Jesus' life.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Canonical gospel accounts

[[File:P. Chester Beatty I, folio 13-14, recto.jpg|thumb|A 3rd century Greek papyrus of Luke.]] Three of the four canonical gospels, namely Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are known as the Synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view"), given that they display a high degree of similarity in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure.<ref>New Testament Theology by Paul Haffner 2008 ISBN 88-902268-0-3 page 135</ref><ref>A Guide to the Gospels by W. Graham Scroggie 1995 ISBN 0-8254-3744-X page 128</ref><ref name="oed">Template:OED</ref> The presentation in the fourth canonical gospel, i.e. John, differs from these three in that it has more of a thematic nature rather than a narrative format.<ref name=Moloney3 /><ref name="CC">Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972</ref> Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the synoptic gospels and the Gospel of John.<ref name=Moloney3 >The Gospel of John by Francis J. Moloney, Daniel J. Harrington 1998 ISBN 0-8146-5806-7 page 3</ref>

However, in general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.<ref name=Rahner730 >Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 pages 730-731</ref> The gospels were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity with the chronological timelines as a secondary consideration.<ref name=Wiarda75 >Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology by Timothy Wiarda 2010 ISBN 0-8054-4843-8 pages 75-78</ref> One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.<ref name=Turner613 >Matthew by David L. Turner 2008 ISBN 0-8010-2684-9 page 613</ref>

Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus.<ref name=Rahner730 /><ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name = autogenerated5>Sanders (1993) p. 3</ref> However, as stated in John 21:25 the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.<ref name=Gerald3 >Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 0-19-955787-X pages 1-3</ref>

Gospel sources, similarities and differences

Template:See also Scholars have debated the sources for the gospels for millennia, and have proposed various hypotheses of how the synoptic gospels were written and how they influenced each other, going back to the Augustinian hypothesis in the 5th century.<ref name=Soulen185 >Handbook of biblical criticism by Richard N. Soulen, R. Kendall Soulen ISBN 0-664-22314-1 page 185</ref> In the 20th and 21st centuries hypotheses such as the two-source, four-source, Farrer or the Markan priority hypothesis have been debated.<ref name=Soulen185 /><ref name=RLTHomas61 >Three views on the origins of the Synoptic Gospels by Robert L. Thomas 2002 ISBN 0-8254-3838-1 pages 61-65</ref><ref name=Aune312 >The Blackwell companion to the New Testament by David E. Aune 2010 ISBN 978-1-4051-0825-6 page 312</ref> Each hypothesis assumes a specific order in which the gospels were written, or that other as yet unknown and hypothetical documents such as the Q source or the M source influenced various gospels in various ways. Each hypotheses has had support among some scholars, while problems with and weaknesses in it have been pointed out by opponents.<ref name=Soulen185 /><ref name=RLTHomas61 /><ref name=Aune312 /><ref>Carlson, Stephen C. "The Two Source Hypothesis." Aug. 20, 2009.</ref>

Since the 2nd century attempts have been made to harmonize the gospel accounts into a single narrative; Tatian's Diatesseron perhaps being the first harmony and other works such as Augustine' book Harmony of the Gospels followed.<ref name=Lancel >Augustine through the ages: an encyclopedia by John C. Cavadini 1999 ISBN 0-8028-3843-X page 132</ref><ref name=CoxE3 >Cox (2007) p. 3</ref> A number of different approaches to gospel harmony have been proposed in the 20th century, but no single and unique harmony can be constructed.<ref>Cox (2007) pp. 7-8</ref> While some scholars argue that combining the four gospel stories into one story is tantamount to creating a fifth story different from each original, others see the gospels as blending together to give an overall and comprehensive picture of Jesus' teaching and ministry.<ref name=CoxE3 /><ref name="MisJ" /><ref>Kurt Aland, 1982 Synopsis of the Four Gospels ISBN 0-8267-0500-6 pages 1-10</ref><ref>John Bernard Orchard, 1983 Synopsis of the Four Gospels ISBN 0-567-09331-X pages 2-7</ref> Although there are differences in specific temporal sequences, and in the parables and miracles listed in each gospel, the flow of the key events such as Baptism, Transfiguration and Crucifixion and interactions with people such as the Apostles are shared among the gospel narratives.<ref name=Rahner730 /><ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name=Blomberg224 /><ref>Cox (2007) pp. 18-20</ref>

Key elements and the five major milestones

The five major milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus are his Baptism, Transfiguration, Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension.<ref name=digby >Essays in New Testament interpretation by Charles Francis Digby Moule 1982 ISBN 0-521-23783-1 page 63</ref><ref>The Melody of Faith: Theology in an Orthodox Key by Vigen Guroian 2010 ISBN 0-8028-6496-1 page 28</ref><ref name=JBreck12 /> These are usually bracketed by two other episodes: his Nativity at the beginning and the sending of the Holy Spirit at the end.<ref name=digby /><ref name=JBreck12 >Scripture in tradition by John Breck 2001 ISBN 0-88141-226-0 page 12</ref> The gospel accounts of the teachings of Jesus are often presented in terms of specific categories involving his "works and words", e.g. his ministry, parables and miracles.<ref name=Zuck100 >The Bible Knowledge Commentary by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 0-88207-812-7 page 100</ref><ref name=WPent212 >The words and works of Jesus Christ by J. Dwight Pentecost 2000 ISBN 978-0-310-30940-6 page 212</ref>

The gospels include a number discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, e.g. the Sermon on the Mount or the Farewell Discourse, and also include over 30 parables, spread throughout the narrative, often with themes that relate to the sermons.<ref name="autogenerated174">All the Parables of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 1988 ISBN 978-0-310-28111-5 page 174</ref> Parables represent a major component of the teachings of Jesus in the gospels, forming approximately one third of his recorded teachings, and John 14:10 positions them as the revelations of God the Father.<ref name="JDPentecost10">J. Dwight Pentecost, 1998 The parables of Jesus: lessons in life from the Master Teacher ISBN 0-8254-3458-0 page 10</ref><ref name="autogenerated98">Eric Francis Osborn, 1993 The emergence of Christian theology ISBN 0-521-43078-X page 98</ref> The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracle of Jesus also often include teachings, providing an intertwining of his "words and works" in the gospels.<ref name=WPent212 /><ref name="autogenerated95">Graham H. Twelftree, Jesus the miracle worker: a historical & theological study ISBN 0-8308-1596-1 page 95</ref>

File:Gerard van Honthorst 001.jpg Nativity	File:Trevisani baptism christ.JPG Baptism	File:Christ's temptation (Monreale).jpg Temptation	File:Vittore carpaccio, vocazione di san matteo.jpg Disciples and Apostles
File:Paris cimetière Montparnasse760.JPG Ministry	File:Brooklyn Museum - Jesus Sits by the Seashore and Preaches (Jésus s'assied au bord de la mer et prêche) - James Tissot.jpg Teachings and Sermons	File:Pompeo Batoni 003.jpg Parables	File:Po vodam.jpg Miracles
File:Ribalta-cena.jpg Last Supper and Betrayal	File:Decani.jpg Passion and Crucifixion	File:Nolimetangerecorregio.jpg Resurrection and Appearances	File:Dosso Dossi 022.jpg Ascension

Genealogy and Nativity

Template:Gospel Jesus

The accounts of the genealogy and Nativity of Jesus in the New Testament appear only in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew. While there are documents outside of the New Testament which are more or less contemporary with Jesus and the gospels, many shed no light on the more biographical aspects of his life and these two gospel accounts remain the main sources of information on the genealogy and Nativity.<ref name="autogenerated5" />

Genealogy

Template:Main Matthew begins his gospel in 1:1 with the genealogy of Jesus, and presents it before the account of the birth of Jesus, while Luke discusses the genealogy in chapter 3, after the Baptism of Jesus in Luke 3:22 when the voice from Heaven addresses Jesus and identifies him as the Son of God.<ref name=MaryBrown /> At that point Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through Adam to God.<ref name=MaryBrown >Mary in the New Testament by Raymond Edward Brown 1978 ISBN 0-8091-2168-9 page 163</ref>

While Luke traces the genealogy upwards towards Adam and God, Matthew traces it downwards towards Jesus.<ref>Where Christology began: essays on Philippians 2 by Ralph P. Martin, Brian J. Dodd 1998 ISBN 0-664-25619-8 page 28</ref> Both gospels state that Jesus was begotten not by Joseph, but by God.<ref name=genpurpose >The purpose of the Biblical genealogies by Marshall D. Johnson 1989 ISBN 0-521-35644-X pages 229-233</ref> Both accounts trace Joseph back to King David and from there to Abraham. These lists are identical between Abraham and David (except for one), but they differ almost completely between David and Joseph.<ref>Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I–IX. Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981, pp. 499–500.</ref><ref>I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (The New International Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978, p. 158.</ref> Matthew gives Jacob as Joseph’s father and Luke says Joseph was the son of Heli. Attempts at explaining the differences between the genealogies have varied in nature, e.g. that Luke traces the genealogy through Mary while Matthew traces it through Joseph; or that Jacob and Heli were both fathers of Joseph, one being the legal father, after the death of Joseph's actual father—but there is no scholarly agreement on a resolution for the differences.<ref>The Gospel of Luke by William Barclay 2001 ISBN 0-664-22487-3 pages 49-50</ref><ref>Luke: an introduction and commentary by Leon Morris 1988 ISBN 0-8028-0419-5 page 110</ref><ref>Cox (2007) pp. 285-286</ref>

Nativity

Template:Main The Nativity is a prominent element in the Gospel of Luke, comprises over 10% of the text, and is three times the length of the nativity text in Matthew.<ref name=Craddock >Template:Cite book</ref> Luke's account takes place mostly before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary, while Matthew's takes place mostly after the birth of Jesus and centers on Joseph.<ref>Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey (1998). Mercer dictionary of the Bible. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. p. 556. ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7.</ref><ref name="marsh37">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Luke and Matthew, Jesus was born to Joseph and Mary, his betrothed, in Bethlehem. Both support the doctrine of the Virgin Birth in which Jesus was miraculously conceived in his mother's womb by the Holy Spirit, when his mother was still a virgin.<ref name=LJeffrey >Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=CoxEasley >Cox (2007) pp. 30–37</ref><ref name=Brownrigg >Template:Cite book</ref><ref name= JFKelly >Template:Cite book</ref>

Luke is the only gospel to provide an account of the birth of John the Baptist, and uses it to draw parallels between the births of John and Jesus.<ref name=Kugler394 >An Introduction to the Bible by Robert Kugler, Patrick Hartin ISBN 0-8028-4636-X page 394</ref> Luke relates the two births in the visitation of Mary to Elizabeth<ref name=Craddock /> and further connects the two births by stating that Mary and Elizabeth are cousins.<ref name=Neufeld113 >Recovering Jesus Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld 2007 ISBN 1-58743-202-1 pages 113-114</ref> In Luke 1:31-38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit. When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census of Quirinius. In Luke 2:1-7. Mary gives birth to Jesus and, having found no place in the inn, places the newborn in a manger. An angel visits the shepherds and sends them to adore the child in Luke 2:22. After presenting Jesus at the Temple, Joseph and Mary return home to Nazareth.<ref name="marsh37"/><ref>A Dictionary of biblical tradition by David L. Jeffrey 1993 ISBN 0-8028-3634-8 pages 538-540</ref>

The nativity account in chapters 1 and 2 of the Gospel of Matthew appears to differ from Luke in implying that Jesus and his family are already living in Bethlehem.<ref>William David Davies, Dale C. Allison, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Gospel According to Saint Matthew, Volume I (T & T Clark, 1988), page 226.</ref> However, Matthew does not state that Joseph lived in Bethlehem prior to the birth of Jesus.<ref>Virgin Birth of Christ by J Gresham Machen 1987 ISBN 0-227-67630-0 page 193</ref> Following his betrothal to Mary, Joseph is troubled in Matthew 1:19-20 because Mary is pregnant, but in the first of Joseph's three dreams an angel assures him not be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.<ref name=Talbert29 >Matthew by Charles H. Talbert 2010 ISBN 0-8010-3192-3 page 29-30</ref> In Matthew 1:1-12, the Wise Men or Magi bring gifts to the young Jesus after following a star which they believe was a sign that the King of the Jews had been born. King Herod hears of Jesus' birth from the Wise Men and tries to kill him by massacring all the male children in Bethlehem under the age of two (the Massacre of the Innocents).<ref name="Harris Matthew">Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Matthew" pp. 272–85.</ref> Before the massacre, Joseph is warned by an angel in his dream and the family flees to Egypt and remains there until Herod's death, after which they leave Egypt and settle in Nazareth to avoid living under the authority of Herod's son and successor Archelaus.<ref name=Talbert29 /><ref>The Gospel of Matthew by Rudolf Schnackenburg 2002 ISBN 0-8028-4438-3 pages 9-11</ref>

Early life and profession

Template:See also In the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, Jesus’ childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in Galilee. Joseph, husband of Mary, appears in descriptions of Jesus’ childhood and no mention is made of him thereafter.<ref>Saint Joseph: His Life and His Role in the Church Today by Louise Bourassa Perrotta 2000 ISBN 0-87973-573-2 pages 21 and 110-112</ref> The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians mention Jesus’ brothers and sisters, but the Greek word adelphos in these verses, has also been translated as brother or kinsman.<ref>International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1979 ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 page 551</ref>

Luke 2:41–52 includes an incident in the childhood of Jesus, where he was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The Finding in the Temple is the sole event between Jesus’ infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical gospels.

In Mark 6:3 Jesus is called a tekton (τέκτων in Greek), usually understood to mean carpenter. Matthew 13:55 says he was the son of a tekton.<ref name="Vine1940" />Template:Rp Tekton has been traditionally translated into English as "carpenter", but it is a rather general word (from the same root that leads to "technical" and "technology") that could cover makers of objects in various materials, even builders.<ref>Template:Cite document</ref><ref>Dickson, John Jesus: A Short Life, Lion Hudson , 2008, ISBN 0-8254-7802-2 pages 68-69</ref>

Beyond the New Testament accounts, the specific association of the profession of Jesus with woodworking is a constant in the traditions of the 1st and 2nd centuries and Justin Martyr (d. ca. 165) wrote that Jesus made yokes and ploughs.<ref>Fiensy, David Jesus the Galilean Gorgias Press, 2007, ISBN 1-59333-313-7 page 74</ref>

Baptism and temptation

Template:Main [[File:Trevisani baptism christ.JPG|thumb|left|180px|Trevisani's depiction of the typical baptismal scene with the sky opening and the Holy Spirit descending as a dove, 1723.<ref>Medieval art: a topical dictionary by Leslie Ross 1996 ISBN 978-0-313-29329-0 page 30</ref>]] In the gospels, the accounts of the Baptism of Jesus are always preceded by information about John the Baptist and his ministry.<ref name=Blomberg224 /><ref name=Kellum141 /><ref name=Alister16 /> In these accounts, John was preaching for penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraged the giving of alms to the poor (as in Luke 3:11) as he baptized people in the area of the River Jordan around Perea about the time of the commencement of the ministry of Jesus. The Gospel of John (1:28) specifies "Bethany beyond the Jordan", i.e. Bethabara in Perea, when it initially refers to it and later John 3:23 refers to further baptisms in Ænon "because there was much water there".<ref name=BigPic >Big Picture of the Bible - New Testament by Lorna Daniels Nichols 2009 ISBN 1-57921-928-4 page 12</ref><ref name=Sloyan11 >John by Gerard Stephen Sloyan 1987 ISBN 0-8042-3125-7 page 11</ref>

The four gospels are not the only references to John's ministry around the River Jordan. In Acts 10:37-38, Peter refers to how the ministry of Jesus followed "the baptism which John preached".<ref name="autogenerated2003"/> In the Antiquities of the Jews (18.5.2) 1st century historian Josephus also wrote about John the Baptist and his eventual death in Perea.<ref>Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible 2000 ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 583</ref><ref>Behold the Man: The Real Life of the Historical Jesus by Kirk Kimball 2002 ISBN 978-1-58112-633-4 page 654</ref>

In the gospels, John had been foretelling (as in Luke 3:16) of the arrival of a someone "mightier than I".<ref name=EerRoger >Eerdmans commentary on the Bible by James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3711-5 page 1010</ref><ref name=Zanzig118 /> Apostle Paul also refers to this anticipation by John in Acts 19:4.<ref name="autogenerated362"/> In Matthew 3:14, upon meeting Jesus, the Baptist states: "I need to be baptized by you." However, Jesus persuades John to baptize him nonetheless.<ref name=Ponessa27 /> In the baptismal scene, after Jesus emerges from the water, the sky opens and a voice from Heaven states: "This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased". The Holy Spirit then descends upon Jesus as a dove in Matthew 3:13-17, Mark 1:9-11, Luke 3:21-23.<ref name=EerRoger /><ref name=Zanzig118 /><ref name=Ponessa27 >The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 pages 27-31</ref> In John 1:29-33 rather than a direct narrative, the Baptist bears witness to the episode.<ref name=Zanzig118 >Jesus of history, Christ of faith by Thomas Zanzig 2000 ISBN 0-88489-530-0 page 118</ref><ref name=JohnEBrown25 /> This is one of two cases in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being in the Transfiguration of Jesus episode.<ref name="Lee21"/><ref name="Nobbs"/>

After the baptism, the synoptic gospels proceed to describe the Temptation of Jesus, but John 1:35-37 narrates the first encounter between Jesus and two of his future disciples, who were then disciples of John the Baptist.<ref name=Boring292 >The people's New Testament commentary by M. Eugene Boring, Fred B. Craddock 2004 ISBN 0-664-22754-6 pages 292-293</ref><ref name=Niswonger143 /> In this narrative, the next day the Baptist sees Jesus again and calls him the Lamb of God and the "two disciples heard him speak, and they followed Jesus".<ref>Jesus of Nazareth by Duane S. Crowther 1999 ISBN 0-88290-656-9 page 77</ref><ref>The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 page 92</ref><ref name=Landers6 >A Summary of Christian History by Robert A. Baker, John M. Landers 2005 ISBN 0-8054-3288-4 pages 6-7</ref> One of the disciples is named Andrew, but the other remains unnamed, and Raymond E. Brown raises the question of his being the author of the Gospel of John himself.<ref name=JohnEBrown25 /><ref>The Disciple Whom Jesus Loved by J. Phillips 2004 ISBN 0-9702687-1-8 pages 121-123</ref> In the Gospel of John, the disciples follow Jesus thereafter, and bring other disciples to him, and Acts 18:24-19:6 portrays the disciples of John as eventually merging with the followers of Jesus.<ref name=JohnEBrown25 >The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commentary by Raymond Edward Brown 1988 ISBN 978-0-8146-1283-5 pages 25-27</ref><ref name=Boring292 />

The Temptation of Jesus is narrated in the three synoptic gospels after his baptism.<ref name=Niswonger143 /><ref name=Blomberg259 /> In these accounts, as in Matthew 4:1-11 and Luke 4:1-13, Jesus goes to the desert for forty days to fast. While there, Satan appears to him and tempts him in various ways, e.g. asking Jesus to show signs that he is the Son of God by turning stone to bread, or offering Jesus worldly rewards in exchange for worship.<ref name=Niswonger143 /><ref name=Redfor95 /> Jesus rejects every temptation and when Satan leaves, angels appear and minister to Jesus.<ref name=Niswonger143 >New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 143-146</ref><ref name=Blomberg259 >Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 259-261</ref><ref name=Redfor95 >The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 95-99</ref>

Ministry

Template:Main Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /> The date of the start of his ministry has been estimated at around 27-29 AD/CE, based on independent approaches which combine separate gospel accounts with other historical data.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name=Eerdmans246 /><ref name=Scarola /><ref name=PAnderson200 /><ref name=Knoblet /><ref name=sourceexplain /> The end of his ministry is estimated to be in the range 30-36 AD/CE.<ref name=Kostenberger140 /><ref name=Barnett19 /><ref name=ChronosPaul /><ref name="Sanders">Sanders (1993) pp. 11, 249</ref>

The three synoptic gospels refer to just one passover during his ministry, while the Gospel of John refers to three passovers, suggesting a period of about three years.<ref name=Kellum141 >The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 141-143</ref><ref name=Albertus >An introduction to the New Testament by Albertus Frederik Johannes Klijn 1997 ISBN 90-04-06263-7 pages 45-46</ref> However, the synoptic gospels do not require a ministry that lasted only one year, and scholars such as Köstenberger state that the Gospel of John simply provides a more detailed account.<ref name=Blomberg224 >Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 page 224-229</ref><ref name=Kellum141 /><ref>New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 132-136</ref>

The gospel accounts place the beginning of Jesus' ministry in the countryside of Judaea, near the River Jordan.<ref name=Alister16 >Christianity: an introduction by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 978-1-4051-0901-7 pages 16-22</ref> Jesus' ministry begins with his Baptism by John the Baptist (Matthew 3, Luke 3), and ends with the Last Supper with his disciples (Matthew 26, Luke 22) in Jerusalem.<ref name=Kellum141 /><ref name=Alister16 /> The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor to that of Jesus and the Baptism as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry, after which Jesus travels, preaches and performs miracles.<ref name=Blomberg224 /><ref name=Kellum141 /><ref name=Alister16 />

[[File:Ancient Galilee.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A 1923 map of Galilee around 50 AD/CE. Nazareth is towards the center.]] The Early Galilean ministry begins when Jesus goes back to Galilee from the Judaean desert after rebuffing the temptation of Satan.<ref>The Gospel according to Matthew by Leon Morris ISBN 0-85111-338-9 page 71</ref> In this early period Jesus preaches around Galilee and in Matthew 4:18-20 his first disciples encounter him, begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church.<ref name=Alister16 /><ref name=Redford117 >The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 117-130</ref> This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of the major discourses of Jesus.<ref name=Redford117 /><ref name="ReferenceA">The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation by Carl G. Vaught 2001 ISBN 978-0-918954-76-3 pages xi-xiv</ref>

The Major Galilean ministry which begins in Matthew 8 refers to activities up to the death of John the Baptist. It includes the Calming the storm and a number of other miracles and parables, as well as the Mission Discourse in which Jesus instructs the twelve apostles who are named in Matthew 10:2-3 to carry no belongings as they travel from city to city and preach.<ref>A theology of the New Testament by George Eldon Ladd 1993ISBN page 324</ref><ref name=Redford143 >The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 143-160</ref>

The Final Galilean ministry includes the Feeding the 5000 and Walking on water episodes, both in Matthew 14.<ref>Cox (2007) pp. 97-110</ref><ref name=Redford165 >The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 165-180</ref> The end of this period (as Matthew 16 and Mark 8 end) marks a turning point is the ministry of Jesus with the dual episodes of Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration - which begins his Later Judaean ministry as he starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judaea.<ref name=KingsburyMark /><ref name=Barton132 /><ref>Cox (2007) pp. 121-135</ref><ref>The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 189-207</ref>

As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Later Perean ministry, about one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan, he returns to the area where he was baptized, and in John 10:40-42 "many people believed in him beyond the Jordan", saying "all things whatsoever John spake of this man were true".<ref>Cox (2007) pp. 137</ref><ref>The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 211-229</ref><ref>Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 929</ref> This period of ministry includes the Discourse on the Church in which Jesus anticipates a future community of followers, and explains the role of his apostles in leading it.<ref>Preaching Matthew's Gospel by Richard A. Jensen 1998 ISBN 978-0-7880-1221-1 pages 25 & 158</ref><ref name="King pages 215-216">Behold the King: A Study of Matthew by Stanley D. Toussaint 2005 ISBN 0-8254-3845-4 pages 215-216</ref> At the end of this period, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus episode.<ref name=Cox155 >Cox (2007) pp. 155-170</ref>

The Final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the Passion Week and begins with the Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday.<ref name=Cox155 /> In that week Jesus drives the money changers from the Temple, and Judas bargains to betray him. This period includes the Olivet Discourse and the Second Coming Prophecy and culminates in the Last Supper, at the end of which Jesus prepares his disciples for his departure in the Farewell discourse. The accounts of the ministry of Jesus generally end with the Last Supper.<ref name=Blomberg224 /><ref name=Cox155 /><ref>The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 257-274</ref> However, some authors also consider the period between the Resurrection and the Ascension part of the ministry of Jesus.<ref>New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 page 154</ref>

Teachings and preachings

Template:Main Template:See also [[File:Jesus-Christ-from-Hagia-Sophia.jpg|thumb|upright|Jesus Christ Pantocrator - ancient mosaic from Hagia Sophia.]]

In the New Testament the teachings of Jesus are presented in terms of his "words and works".<ref name=Zuck100 /><ref name=WPent212 /> The words of Jesus include a number of sermons, as well as parables that appear throughout the narrative of the synoptic gospels (the Gospel of John includes no parables). The works include the miracles and other acts performed during his ministry.<ref name=WPent212 /> Although the canonical gospels are the major source of the teachings of Jesus, the Pauline epistles, which were likely written decades before the gospels, provide some of the earliest written accounts of the teachings of Jesus.<ref name=Blomb442 >Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 441-442</ref>

The New Testament does not present the teachings of Jesus as merely his own preachings, but equates the words of Jesus with divine revelation, with John the Baptist stating in John 3:34: "he whom God hath sent speaketh the words of God" and Jesus stating in John 7:16: "My teaching is not mine, but his that sent me" and again re-asserting that in John 14:10: "the words that I say unto you I speak not from myself: but the Father abiding in me doeth his works."<ref name="autogenerated98"/><ref name=And108 >The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel by Andreas J. Köstenberger 1998 ISBN 0-8028-4255-0 pages 108-109</ref> In Matthew 11:27 Jesus claims divine knowledge, stating: "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son", asserting the mutual knowledge he has with the Father.<ref name=Bromiley571 >The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0-8028-3785-9 page 571-572</ref><ref>Matthew by Charles H. Talbert 2010 ISBN 0-8010-3192-3 page 149</ref>

The gospels include a number of discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, such as the Farewell discourse delivered after the Last Supper, the night before his crucifixion.<ref name="Gail142"/> Although some of the teachings of Jesus are reported as taking place within the formal atmosphere of a synagogue (e.g. in Matthew 4:23) many of the discourses are more like conversations than formal lectures.<ref name=Howick7 >The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah by E. Keith Howick 2003 ISBN 978-1-886249-02-8 pages 7-9</ref>

The Gospel of Matthew has a structured set of sermons, often grouped as the Five Discourses of Matthew, which present many of the key teachings of Jesus.<ref name=Cradle194 >The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 194-196</ref><ref name=Keener37 >The Gospel of Matthew by Craig S. Keener 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-6498-7 pages 37-38</ref> Each of the five discourses has some parallel passages in the Gospel of Mark or the Gospel of Luke.<ref name=RTFrance >The Gospel of Matthew by R. T. France 2007 ISBN 978-0-8028-2501-8 page 9</ref> The five discourses in Matthew begin with the Sermon on the Mount, which encapsulates many of the moral teaching of Jesus and which is one of the best known and most quoted elements of the New Testament.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name=Howick7 /> The Sermon on the Mount includes the Beatitudes which describe the character of the people of the Kingdom of God, expressed as "blessings".<ref>"Beatitudes." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> The Beatitudes focus on love and humility rather than force and exaction and echo the key ideals of Jesus' teachings on spirituality and compassion.<ref name=Haste >A Dictionary Of The Bible by James Hastings 2004 ISBN 1-4102-1730-2 page 15-19</ref><ref name=Peace >Jesus the Peacemaker by Carol Frances Jegen 1986 ISBN 0-934134-36-7 pages 68-71</ref><ref name=Synop >The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6, pages 63-68</ref> The other discourses in Matthew include the Missionary Discourse in Matthew 10 and the Discourse on the Church in Matthew 18, providing instructions to the disciples and laying the foundation of the codes of conduct for the anticipated community of followers.<ref name="King pages 215-216"/><ref>Preaching Matthew's Gospel by Richard A. Jensen 1998 ISBN 978-0-7880-1221-1 pages 25 & 158</ref><ref>Matthew by Larry Chouinard 1997 ISBN 0-89900-628-0 page 321</ref>

Parables represent a major component of the teachings of Jesus in the gospels, the approximately thirty parables forming about one third of his recorded teachings.<ref name="autogenerated174"/><ref name="JDPentecost10" /> The parables may appear within longer sermons, as well as other places within the narrative.<ref name=Howick7 /> Jesus' parables are seemingly simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, and each conveys a teaching which usually relates the physical world to the spiritual world.<ref name="Lisco9-11">Friedrich Gustav Lisco 1850 The Parables of Jesus Daniels and Smith Publishers, Philadelphia pages 9-11</ref><ref>Ashton Oxenden, 1864 The parables of our Lord? William Macintosh Publishers, London, page 6</ref>

The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracle of Jesus also often include teachings, providing an intertwining of his "words and works" in the gospels.<ref name=WPent212 /><ref name="autogenerated95"/> Many of the miracles in the gospels teach the importance of faith, for instance in Cleansing ten lepers and Daughter of Jairus the beneficiaries are told that they were healed due to their faith.<ref>John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington. The Gospel of Mark. Zondervan 1981. ISBN 0-8146-5965-9 p.182</ref><ref>Lockyer, Herbert, 1988 All the Miracles of the Bible ISBN 0-310-28101-6 page 235</ref>

Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration

Template:Main [[File:Transfiguration by Lodovico Carracci.jpg|thumb|upright|Transfiguration of Jesus depicting him with Elijah, Moses and 3 apostles by Carracci, 1594.]] At about the middle of each of the three synoptic gospels, two related episodes mark a turning point in the narrative: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus.<ref name=KingsburyMark >The Christology of Mark's Gospel by Jack Dean Kingsbury 1983 ISBN 0-8006-2337-1 pages 91-95</ref><ref name=Barton132 >The Cambridge companion to the Gospels by Stephen C. Barton ISBN 0-521-00261-3 pages 132-133</ref> These episodes begin in Caesarea Philippi just north of the Sea of Galilee at the beginning of the final journey to Jerusalem which ends in the Passion and Resurrection of Jesus.<ref name=Karris >The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament by Robert J. Karris 1992 ISBN 0-8146-2211-9 pages 885-886</ref> These episodes mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus to his disciples; and his prediction of his own suffering and death.<ref name=Lee21 >Transfiguration by Dorothy A. Lee 2005 ISBN 978-0-8264-7595-4 pages 21-30</ref><ref name= Nobbs /><ref name=KingsburyMark /><ref name=Barton132 /><ref name=Karris />

Peter's Confession begins as a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples in Matthew 16:13, Mark 8:27 and Luke 9:18. Jesus asks his disciples: But who do you say that I am? Simon Peter answers him: You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.<ref name=Karris /><ref name="Kingsburyxvi">Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0-664-25752-6 page xvi</ref><ref>The Gospel of Mark, Volume 2 by John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington 2002 ISBN 0-8146-5965-9 page 336</ref> In Matthew 16:17 Jesus blesses Peter for his answer, and states: "flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven." In blessing Peter, Jesus not only accepts the titles Christ and Son of God which Peter attributes to him, but declares the proclamation a divine revelation by stating that his Father in Heaven had revealed it to Peter.<ref name="OneTeacher">One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel by John Yueh-Han Yieh 2004 ISBN 3-11-018151-7 pages 240-241</ref> In this assertion, by endorsing both titles as divine revelation, Jesus unequivocally declares himself to be both Christ and the Son of God.<ref name="OneTeacher"/><ref>Jesus God and Man by Wolfhart Pannenberg 1968 ISBN 0-664-24468-8 pages 53-54</ref>

The account of the Transfiguration of Jesus appears in Matthew 17:1-9, Mark 9:2-8, Luke 9:28-36.<ref name= Lee21 /><ref name= Nobbs >The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition by Mark Harding, Alanna Nobbs 2010 ISBN 978-0-8028-3318-1 pages 281-282</ref><ref name= Nobbs /><ref name=Barton132>The Cambridge companion to the Gospels by Stephen C. Barton ISBN pages 132-133</ref> Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles with him and goes up to a mountain, which is not named. Once on the mountain, Matthew (17:2) states that Jesus "was transfigured before them; his face shining as the sun, and his garments became white as the light." At that point the prophets Elijah and Moses appear and Jesus begins to talk to them.<ref name=Lee21 /> Luke is specific in describing Jesus in a state of glory, with Luke 9:32 referring to "they saw his glory".<ref name=Lee72 >Transfiguration by Dorothy A. Lee 2005 ISBN 978-0-8264-7595-4 pages 72-76</ref> A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud states: "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him".<ref name=Lee21 />

The Transfiguration not only supports the identity of Jesus as the Son of God (as in his Baptism), but the statement "listen to him", identifies him as the messenger and mouth-piece of God.<ref name=Meta47 >Metamorphosis: the Transfiguration in Byzantine theology and iconography by Andreas Andreopoulos 2005 ISBN 0-88141-295-3 pages 47-49</ref> The significance is enhanced by the presence of Elijah and Moses, for it indicates to the apostles that Jesus is the voice of God, and instead of Elijah or Moses, he should be listened to, by virtue of his filial relationship with God.<ref name=Meta47 /> 2 Peter 1:16-18, echoes the same message: at the Transfiguration God assigns to Jesus a special "honor and glory" and it is the turning point at which God exalts Jesus above all other powers in creation.<ref>The Bible knowledge background commentary: John's Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation by Craig A. Evans ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 pages 319-320</ref>

At the end of both episodes, as in some other pericopes in the New Testament such as miracles, Jesus tells his disciples not to repeat to others, what they had seen - the command at times interpreted in the context of the theory of the Messianic Secret.<ref>The Christology of Mark's Gospel by Jack Dean Kingsbury 1983 ISBN 0-8006-2337-1 pages 2-11</ref> At the end of the Transfiguration episode, Jesus commands the disciples to silence about it "until the Son of man be risen from the dead", relating the Transfiguration to the Resurrection episode.<ref>Metamorphosis: the Transfiguration in Byzantine theology and iconography by Andreas Andreopoulos 2005 ISBN 0-88141-295-3 pages 60-65</ref><ref>The Gospel according to Mark by James R. Edwards 2002 ISBN 0-85111-778-3 pages 272-274</ref><ref>Reading Matthew: a literary and theological commentary by David E. Garland 1999 ISBN 1-57312-274-2 pages 182-184</ref>

Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death

The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called the Passion week) occupies about one third of the narrative in the canonical gospels.<ref name=Turner613 /> The narrative for that week starts by a description of the final entry into Jerusalem, and ends with his crucifixion.<ref name=Blomberg224 /><ref name=Cox155 />

[[File:Juan de Juanes 003.jpg|thumb|220px|left|The Last Supper has been depicted by many artistic masters.<ref name=Zuffi >Gospel figures in art by Stefano Zuffi 2003 ISBN 978-0-89236-727-6 pages 254-259</ref>]] The last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey which Jesus had started in Galilee through Perea and Judea.<ref name=Cox155 /> Just before the account of the final entry of Jesus into Jerusalem, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus episode, which builds the tension between Jesus and the authorities. At the beginning of the week as Jesus enters Jerusalem, he is greeted by the cheering crowds, adding to that tension.<ref name=Cox155 />

During the week of his "final ministry in Jerusalem", Jesus visits the Temple, and has a conflict with the money changers about their use of the Temple for commercial purposes. This is followed by a debate with the priests and the elder in which his authority is questioned. One of his disciples, Judas Iscariot, decides to betray Jesus for thirty pieces of silver.<ref name="Lockyer106 " />

Towards the end of the week, Jesus has the Last Supper with his disciples, during which he institutes the Eucharist, and prepares them for his departure in the Farewell Discourse. After the supper, Jesus is betrayed with a kiss while he is in agony in the garden, and is arrested. After his arrest, Jesus is abandoned by most of his disciples, and Peter denies him three times, as Jesus had predicted during the Last Supper.<ref name="Cox182 " /><ref>Craig A. Evans 2005 The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: John's Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 page 122</ref>

Jesus is first questioned by the Sanhedrin, and is then tried by Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea. During these trials Jesus says very little, and is mostly silent. After the scourging of Jesus, and his mocking as the King of the Jews Pilate orders the crucifixion.<ref>Introduction to the New Testament Christology by Raymond E. Brown, 1994 ISBN 0-8264-7190-0 pages 78-79</ref><ref name="Senior" />

Thus the final week that begins with his entry into Jerusalem, concludes with his crucifixion and burial on that Friday, as described in the next 5 sub-sections. The New Testament accounts then describe the resurrection of Jesus three days later, on the Sunday following his death.

Final entry into Jerusalem

Template:Main [[File:Jesus entering jerusalem on a donkey.jpg|thumb|200px|Matthew 21:5 relates Jesus' entry to Zechariah (9:9): "the King cometh unto thee, meek, and sitting upon an ass." Traditionally, arrival on a donkey signifies peace, while war-waging kings ride horses.<ref name=M133 /><ref name=Allison120 >Matthew 19-28 by William David Davies, Dale C. Allison 2004 ISBN 0-567-08375-6 page 120</ref><ref name=MacArthur17 />]]

In the four canonical gospels, Jesus' Triumphal entry into Jerusalem takes place at the beginning of the last week of his life, a few days before the Last Supper, marking the beginning of the Passion narrative.<ref name=M133 >The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 pages 133-134</ref><ref name=Boring256 >The people's New Testament commentary by M. Eugene Boring, Fred B. Craddock 2004 ISBN 0-664-22754-6 pages 256-258</ref><ref name=CEvans381 >The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1 by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 page 381-395</ref><ref name=CAEvans114 >The Bible knowledge background commentary: John's Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation by Craig A. Evans ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 pages 114-118</ref><ref>Matthew 21:1-11, Mark 11:1-11, Luke 19:28-44 John 12:12-19</ref> While at Bethany Jesus sent two disciples to retrieve a donkey that had been tied up but never ridden and rode it into Jerusalem, with Mark and John stating Sunday, Matthew Monday, and Luke not specifying the day.<ref name=M133 /><ref name=Boring256 /><ref name=CEvans381 /> As Jesus rode into Jerusalem the people there lay down their cloaks in front of him, and also lay down small branches of trees and sang part of Psalm 118: 25-26.<ref name=M133 /><ref name=MacArthur17 >John 12-21 by John MacArthur 2008 ISBN 978-0-8024-0824-2 pages 17-18</ref><ref name=Boring256 /><ref name=CEvans381 />

In the three synoptic gospels, entry into Jerusalem is followed by the Cleansing of the Temple episode, in which Jesus expels the money changers from the Temple, accusing them of turning the Temple to a den of thieves through their commercial activities. This is the only account of Jesus using physical force in any of the gospels.<ref name="Bromiley571"/><ref name=CAEvans49 >The Bible knowledge background commentary by Craig A. Evans 2005 ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 page 49</ref><ref name=Anderson158 >The Fourth Gospel And the Quest for Jesus by Paul N. Anderson 2006 ISBN 0-567-04394-0 page 158</ref> John 2:13-16 includes a similar narrative much earlier, and scholars debate if these refer to the same episode.<ref name="Bromiley571"/><ref name=CAEvans49 /><ref name=Anderson158 /> The synoptics include a number of well known parables and sermons such as the Widow's mite and the Second Coming Prophecy during the week that follows.<ref name=Boring256 /><ref name=CEvans381 />

In that week, the synoptics also narrate conflicts between Jesus and the elders of the Jews, in episodes such as the Authority of Jesus Questioned and the Woes of the Pharisees in which Jesus criticizes their hypocrisy.<ref name=Boring256 /><ref name=CEvans381 /> Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles approaches the Jewish elders and performs the "Bargain of Judas" in which he accepts to betray Jesus and hand him over to the elders.<ref>Matthew 26:14-16, Mark 14:10-11, Luke 22:1-6</ref><ref name=Lockyer106 >All the Apostles of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 1988 ISBN 0-310-28011-7 page 106-111</ref><ref>The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts by Doremus Almy Hayes 2009 ISBN 1-115-87731-3 page 88</ref> Matthew specifies the price as thirty silver coins.<ref name="Lockyer106 "/>

Last Supper

Template:Main Template:See also In the New Testament, the Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels, and Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (11:23-26), which was likely written before the gospels, also refers to it.<ref name=Fahlbusch52 >The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4 by Erwin Fahlbusch, 2005 ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5 pages 52-56</ref><ref name="CEvans465"/><ref>Matthew 26:20, Mark 14:17, Luke 22:21-23 John 13:1</ref><ref name=SCox180 >Cox (2007) pp. 180-191</ref>

[[File:Juan de Juanes 002.jpg|thumb|left|125px|Jesus with the Eucharist (detail), by Juan de Juanes, mid-late 16th century.]] In all four gospels, during the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his Apostles will betray him.<ref name=Cox182 >Cox (2007) p. 182</ref> Jesus is described as reiterating, despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray Jesus, that the betrayer would be one of those who were present. In Matthew 26:23-25 and John 13:26-27 Judas is specifically singled out as the traitor.<ref name=Fahlbusch52 /><ref name=CEvans465 /><ref name="Cox182 "/>

In Matthew 26:26-29, Mark 14:22-25, Luke 22:19-20 Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to the disciples, saying: "This is my body which is given for you". In 1 Corinthians 11:23-26 Apostle Paul provides the theological underpinnings for the use of the Eucharist, stating: "This cup is the new covenant in my blood; do this, whenever you drink it, in remembrance of me."<ref name=Fahlbusch52 /><ref name=ODCC>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church / editors, F. L. Cross & E. A. Livingstone 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3, article Eucharist</ref> Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread and wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:58-59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a Eucharistic nature and resonates with the "words of institution" used in the synoptic gospels and the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.<ref>Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible 2000 ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 792</ref>

In all four gospels Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him, stating that Peter will disown him three times before the rooster crows the next morning. The synoptics mention that after the arrest of Jesus Peter denied knowing him three times, but after the third denial, heard the rooster crow and recalled the prediction as Jesus turned to look at him. Peter then began to cry bitterly.<ref>Peter: apostle for the whole church by Pheme Perkins 2000 ISBN 0-567-08743-3 page 85</ref><ref>The Gospel according to Matthew, Volume 1 by Johann Peter Lange 1865 Published by Charles Scribner Co, NY page 499</ref>

The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples' feet before the meal.<ref name="Harris John" >Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Matthew" pp. 272–85.</ref> John's Gospel also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14-17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell discourse given by Jesus, and are a rich source of Christological content.<ref name=Gail142 >John by Gail R. O'Day, Susan Hylen 2006 ISBN 978-0-664-25260-1, Chapter 15: The Farewell Discourse, pages 142-168</ref><ref name=Herman546 >The Gospel according to John by Herman Ridderbos 1997 ISBN 978-0-8028-0453-2 The Farewell Prayer: pages 546-576</ref>

Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrest

Template:Main Template:See also

In Matthew 26:36-46, Mark 14:32-42, Luke 22:39-46 and John 18:1, immediately after the Last Supper, Jesus takes a walk to pray, Matthew and Mark identifying this place of prayer as Garden of Gethsemane.<ref name=Maj169 >The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 page 169</ref><ref name=Zuck83 >The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edited by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 978-0-88207-812-0 pages 83-85</ref>

Jesus is accompanied by Peter, John and James the Greater, whom he asks to "remain here and keep watch with me." He moves "a stone's throw away" from them, where he feels overwhelming sadness and says "My Father, if it is possible, let this cup pass me by. Nevertheless, let it be as you, not I, would have it."<ref name=Zuck83 /> Only the Gospel of Luke mentions the details of the sweat of blood of Jesus and the visitation of the angel who comforts Jesus as he accepts the will of the Father. Returning to the disciples after prayer, he finds them asleep and in Matthew 26:40 he asks Peter: "So, could you men not keep watch with me for an hour?"<ref name=Zuck83 />

While in the Garden, Judas appears, accompanied by a crowd that includes the Jewish priests and elders and people with weapons. Judas gives Jesus a kiss to identify him to the crowd who then arrests Jesus.<ref name=Zuck83 /><ref name=CEvans487 /> One of Jesus' disciples tries to stop them and uses a sword to cut off the ear of one of the men in the crowd.<ref name=Zuck83 /><ref name=CEvans487 /> Luke states that Jesus miraculously healed the wound and John and Matthew state that Jesus criticized the violent act, insisting that his disciples should not resist his arrest. In Matthew 26:52 Jesus makes the well known statement: all who live by the sword, shall die by the sword.<ref name=Zuck83 /><ref name=CEvans487 />

Prior to the arrest, in Matthew 26:31 Jesus tells the disciples: "All ye shall be offended in me this night" and in 32 that: "But after I am raised up, I will go before you into Galilee." After his arrest, Jesus' disciples go into hiding.<ref name=Zuck83 />

File:FarewellApostles.jpg Last Supper & Farewell

File:Champaigne - Le Christ au jardin des oliviers.jpg Agony in the Garden

File:Judaskus.jpg Kiss of Judas

File:Caravaggio - Taking of Christ - Dublin - 2.jpg Arrest of Jesus

Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate

Template:Main Template:See also In the narrative of the four canonical gospels after the betrayal and arrest of Jesus, he is taken to the Sanhedrin, a Jewish judicial body.<ref>Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament Doubleday 1997 ISBN 0-385-24767-2, p. 146.</ref> Jesus is tried by the Sanhedrin, mocked and beaten and is condemned for making claims of being the Son of God.<ref name=CEvans487 >The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1 by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 page 487-500</ref><ref name=Craig396 >Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 396-400</ref><ref name=Holman608 >Holman Concise Bible Dictionary 2011 ISBN 0-8054-9548-7 pages 608-609</ref> He is then taken to Pontius Pilate and the Jewish elders ask Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus—accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.<ref name=Holman608 /> After questioning, with few replies provided by Jesus, Pilate publicly declares that he finds Jesus innocent, but the crowd insists on punishment. Pilate then orders Jesus' crucifixion.<ref name=CEvans487 /><ref name=Craig396 /><ref name=Holman608 /><ref name=GBromiley1050 >The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 pages 1050-1052</ref> Although the gospel accounts vary with respect to various details, they agree on the general character and overall structure of the trials of Jesus.<ref name=GBromiley1050 />

[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 012.jpg|thumb|Jesus in the upper right hand corner, his hands bound behind, is being tried at the high priest's house and turns to look at Peter, in Rembrandt's 1660 depiction of Peter's denial.<ref name=Durham163 >The Biblical Rembrandt by John I. Durham 2004 ISBN 0865548862163Template:Please check ISBNTemplate:Please check ISBN</ref>]] In, Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54 Jesus was taken to the high priest's house where he was mocked and beaten that night. The next day, early in the morning, the chief priests and scribes gathered together and lead Jesus away into their council.<ref name=CEvans487 /><ref name=Craig396 /><ref name=Holman608 /><ref>Matthew 27:1, Mark 15:1, 22:66</ref> In John 18:12-14, however, Jesus is first taken to Annas, the father-in-law of Caiaphas, and then to Caiaphas.<ref name=CEvans487 /><ref name=Craig396 /><ref name=Holman608 /> In all four gospel accounts the trial of Jesus is interleaved with the Denial of Peter narrative, where Peter who has followed Jesus denies knowing him three times, at which point the rooster crows as predicted by Jesus during the Last Supper.<ref name=Craig396 /><ref name=Bromiley105 >Theological dictionary of the New Testament by Gerhard Kittel, Geoffrey William Bromiley, Gerhard Friedrich 1980 ISBN 0-8028-2248-7 page 105</ref>

In the gospel accounts Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defense and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the questions of the priests, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62 the lack of response from Jesus prompts the high priest to ask him: "Answerest thou nothing?"<ref name=CEvans487 /><ref name=Craig396 /><ref name=Holman608 /><ref>Matthew 26:67 Mark 14:65 Luke 22:63-65 John 18:22</ref> Mark 14:55-59 states that the chief priests had arranged false witness against Jesus, but the witnesses did not agree together. In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asked Jesus: "Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed?" And Jesus said, "I am" — at which point the high priest tore his own robe in anger and accused Jesus of blasphemy. In Luke 22:70 when asked: "Are you then the Son of God?" Jesus answers: "You say that I am" affirming the title Son of God.<ref>Luke's presentation of Jesus: a christology by Robert F. O'Toole 2004 ISBN 88-7653-625-6 page 166</ref> At that point the priests say: "What further need have we of witness? for we ourselves have heard from his own mouth" and decide to condemn Jesus.<ref name=CEvans487 /><ref name=Craig396 /><ref name=Holman608 /> In Matthew 27:3-5 Judas, who has watched the trial from a distance, is distraught by his betrayal of Jesus, and attempts to return the thirty pieces of silver he had received for betraying Jesus. The priests tell him that his guilt is of his own account. Judas throws the money into the temple, and then leaves and hangs himself.<ref name=Zuck83 /><ref name=CEvans487 />

Taking Jesus to Pilate's Court, the Jewish elders ask Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus—accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.<ref name=Holman608 /> In Luke 23:7-15 (the only gospel account of this episode), Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and is thus under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas.<ref name=Niswonger >New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 page 172</ref><ref>The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 page 181</ref><ref name=Patella >The Gospel according to Luke by Michael Patella 2005 ISBN 0-8146-2862-1 page 16</ref><ref>Luke: The Gospel of Amazement by Michael Card 2011 ISBN 978-0-8308-3835-6 page 251</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried.<ref name=Carter >Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 978-0-8146-5113-1 pages 120-121</ref> However, Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions, or the continuing accusations of the chief priests and the scribes. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put a gorgeous robe on him, as the King of the Jews, and sent him back to Pilate.<ref name=Niswonger /> Pilate then calls together the Jewish elders, and says that he has "found no fault in this man."<ref name=Carter />

The use of the term king is central in the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states: "My kingdom is not of this world", but does not directly deny being the King of the Jews.<ref>The Names of Jesus by Stephen J. Binz 2004 ISBN 1-58595-315-6 pages 81-82</ref><ref>John by H. A. Ironside 2006 ISBN 0-8254-2915-3 page 454</ref> And when in John 19:12 Pilate seeks to release Jesus, the priests object and say: "Every one that makes himself a king speaks against Caesar . . . We have no king but Caesar."<ref name=Hengel46 >Studies in Early Christology by Martin Hengel 2004 ISBN 0-567-04280-4 page 46</ref> Pilate then writes "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" as a sign (abbreviated as INRI in depictions) to be affixed to the cross of Jesus.<ref>The Gospel and Epistles of John by Raymond Edward Brown 1988 ISBN 0-8146-1283-0 page 93</ref>

In Matthew 27:19 Pilate's wife, tormented by a dream, urges Pilate not to have anything to do with Jesus, and Pilate publicly washes his hands of responsibility, yet orders the crucifixion in response to the demands of the crowd. The trial by Pilate is followed by the flagellation episode, the soldiers mock Jesus as the King of Jews by putting a purple robe (that signifies royal status) on him, place a Crown of Thorns on his head, and beat and mistreat him in Matthew 27:29-30, Mark 15:17-19 and John 19:2-3.<ref name=Senior>The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew by Donald Senior 1985 ISBN 0-89453-460-2 page 124</ref> Jesus is then sent to Calvary for crucifixion.<ref name=CEvans487 /><ref name=Craig396 /><ref name=Holman608 />

File:Mattias Stom, Christ before Caiaphas.jpg Sanhedrin Trial

File:JesusPilate.jpg Pilate's Court

File:Duccio di Buoninsegna 027a.jpg Herod's Court

File:Dirk van Baburen - Kroning met de doornenkroon.jpg Crown of Thorns

Crucifixion and burial

Template:Main Template:See also [[File:Pietro Perugino 040.jpg|thumb|upright|Pietro Perugino's depiction of the Crucifixion as Stabat Mater, 1482.]] Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels, and is attested to by other sources of that age (e.g. Josephus and Tacitus), and is regarded as an historical event.<ref name=autogenerated3>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>John Dominic Crossan, (1995) Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography HarperOne ISBN 0-06-061662-8 page 145. J. D. Crossan, page 145 states: "that he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be."</ref><ref>The Word in this world by Paul William Meyer, John T. Carroll 2004 ISBN 0-664-22701-5 page 112</ref>

After the trials, Jesus made his way to Calvary (the path is traditionally called via Dolorosa) and the three synoptic gospels indicate that he was assisted by Simon of Cyrene, the Romans compelling him to do so.<ref name=Evans2003 >The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1 by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 page 509-520</ref><ref name=Kostenberger211 /> In Luke 23:27-28 Jesus tells the women in multitude of people following him not to cry for him but for themselves and their children.<ref name=Evans2003 /> Once at Calvary (Golgotha), Jesus was offered wine mixed with gall to drink — usually offered as a form of painkiller. Matthew's and Mark's gospels state that he refused this.<ref name=Evans2003 /><ref name=Kostenberger211 />

The soldiers then crucified Jesus and cast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross was the inscription King of the Jews, and the soldiers and those passing by mocked him about the title. Jesus was crucified between two convicted thieves, one of whom rebuked Jesus, while the other defended him.<ref name=Evans2003 /><ref name=Miriam271 >Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions by Merriam-Webster, Inc. 1999 ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0 page 271</ref> Each gospel has its own account of Jesus' last words, comprising the seven last sayings on the cross.<ref name=Bromiley426 >Geoffrey W. Bromiley, International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Eerdmans Press 1995, ISBN 0-8028-3784-0 page 426</ref><ref>Joseph F. Kelly, An Introduction to the New Testament 2006 ISBN 978-0-8146-5216-9 page 153</ref><ref name=Houlden627 >Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 ISBN 0-8264-8011-X page 627</ref> In John 19:26-27 Jesus entrusts his mother to the disciple he loved and in Luke 23:34 he states: "Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do", usually interpreted as his forgiveness of the Roman soldiers and the others involved.<ref name=Bromiley426 /><ref>Vernon K. Robbins in Literary studies in Luke-Acts by Richard P. Thompson (editor) 1998 ISBN 0-86554-563-4 pages 200-201</ref><ref>Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 648</ref><ref>Reading Luke-Acts: dynamics of Biblical narrative by William S. Kurz 1993 ISBN 0-664-25441-1 page 201</ref>

In the three synoptic gospels, various supernatural events accompany the crucifixion, including darkness of the sky, an earthquake, and (in Matthew) the resurrection of saints.<ref name=Kostenberger211 >The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 211-214</ref> The tearing of the temple veil, upon the death of Jesus, is referenced in the synoptic.<ref name=Kostenberger211 /> The Roman soldiers did not break Jesus' legs, as they did to the other two men crucified (breaking the legs hastened the crucifixion process), as Jesus was dead already. One of the soldiers pierced the side of Jesus with a lance and water flowed out.<ref name=Miriam271 /> In Mark 13:59, impressed by the events the Roman centurion calls Jesus the Son of God.<ref name=Evans2003 /><ref name=Kostenberger211 /><ref>The Gospel according to Mark by George Martin 2o05 ISBN 0-8294-1970-5 page 440</ref><ref>Mark by Allen Black 1995 ISBN 0-89900-629-9 page 280</ref>

Following Jesus' death on Friday, Joseph of Arimathea asked the permission of Pilate to remove the body. The body was removed from the cross, was wrapped in a clean cloth and buried in a new rock-hewn tomb, with the assistance of Nicodemus.<ref name=Evans2003 /> In Matthew 27:62-66 the Jews go to Pilate the day after the crucifixion and ask for guards for the tomb and also seal the tomb with a stone as well as the guard, to be sure the body remains there.<ref name=Evans2003 /><ref>The Gospel of Matthew by Daniel J. Harrington 1991 ISBN 0-8146-5803-2 page 404</ref><ref>The Gospel according to Matthew by Leon Morris ISBN 0-85111-338-9 page 727</ref>

Resurrection and ascension

Template:Main Template:See also [[File:Noel-coypel-the-resurrection-of-christ-1700.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Resurrection by Noel Coypel, 1700, using a hovering depiction of Jesus.]]The New Testament accounts of the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, state that the first day of the week after the crucifixion (typically interpreted as a Sunday), his followers encounter him risen from the dead, after his tomb is discovered to be empty.<ref name=Evans521 >The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1 by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 pages 521-530</ref><ref name=Zuck91 >The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edited by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 978-0-88207-812-0 page 91</ref><ref>Matthew 28:1, Mark 16:9, Luke 24:1 and John 20:1</ref><ref name=Easley216 >Cox (2007) pp. 216-226</ref> The resurrected Jesus appears to them that day and a number of times thereafter, delivers sermons and commissions them, before ascending to Heaven. Two of the canonical gospels (Luke and Mark) include a brief mention of the Ascension, but the main references to it are elsewhere in the New Testament.<ref name=Evans521 /><ref name=Zuck91 /><ref name=Easley216 />

In the four canonical gospels, when the tomb of Jesus is discovered empty, in Matthew 28:5, Mark 16:5, Luke 24:4 and John 20:12 his resurrection is announced and explained to the followers who arrive there early in the morning by either one or two beings (either men or angels) dressed in bright robes who appear in or near the tomb.<ref name=Evans521 /><ref name=Zuck91 /><ref name=Easley216 /> The gospel accounts vary as to who arrived at the tomb first, but they are women and are instructed by the risen Jesus to inform the other disciples. All four accounts include Mary Magdalene and three include Mary the mother of Jesus. The accounts of Mark 16:9, John 20:15 indicate that Jesus appeared to the Magdalene first, and Luke 16:9 states that she was among the Myrrhbearers who informed the disciples about the resurrection.<ref name=Evans521 /><ref name=Zuck91 /><ref name=Easley216 /> In Matthew 28:11-15, to explain the empty tomb, the Jewish elders bribe the soldiers who had guarded the tomb to spread the rumor that Jesus' disciples took his body.<ref name=Zuck91 />

After the discovery of the empty tomb, the gospels indicate that Jesus made a series of appearances to the disciples.<ref name=Evans521 /><ref name=Zuck91 /> These include the well known Doubting Thomas episode, where Thomas did not believe the resurrection until he was invited to put his finger into the holes made by the wounds in Jesus' hands and side; and the Road to Emmaus appearance where Jesus meets two disciples. The catch of 153 fish appearance includes a miracle at the Sea of Galilee, and thereafter Jesus encourages Peter to serve his followers.<ref name=Evans521 /><ref name=Zuck91 /><ref name=Easley216 />

The final post-resurrection appearance in the gospel accounts is when Jesus ascends to Heaven where he remains with God the Father and the Holy Spirit.<ref name=Evans521 /><ref name=Zuck91 /> The canonical gospels include only brief mentions of the Ascension of Jesus, Luke 24:51 states that Jesus "was carried up into heaven". The ascension account is further elaborated in Acts 1:1-11 and mentioned 1 Timothy 3:16. In Acts 1:1-9, forty days after the resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was taken up; and a cloud received him out of their sight." 1 Peter 3:22 describes Jesus as being on "the right hand of God, having gone into heaven".<ref name=Evans521 /><ref name=Zuck91 />

The Acts of the Apostles also contain "post-ascension" appearances by Jesus. These include the vision by Stephen just before his death in Acts 7:55,<ref>The Acts of the Apostles by Frederick Fyvie Bruce ISBN 978-0-8028-0966-7 page 210</ref> and the road to Damascus episode in which Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity.<ref name=Wiersbe350 /><ref name=HarringtonActs /> The instruction given to Ananias in Damascus in Acts 9:10-18 to heal Paul is the last reported conversation with Jesus in the Bible until the Book of Revelation was written.<ref name=Wiersbe350 >The Wiersbe Bible Commentary: The Complete New Testament by Warren W. Wiersbe 2007 ISBN 978-0-7814-4539-9 pages 350-352</ref><ref name=HarringtonActs >The Acts of the Apostles by Luke Timothy Johnson, Daniel J. Harrington 1992 ISBN 978-0-8146-5807-9 pages 164-167</ref>

File:L F Schnorr von Carolsfeld Die drei Marien am Grab Jesu.jpg Angel at empty tomb Matthew 28:5

File:IVANOV YAV HRISTA MARI1.jpg After Resurrection John 20:15

File:Caravaggio - The Incredulity of Saint Thomas.jpg With the Apostles</br>John 20:24

File:AscensionDossiDetail.jpg Ascension</br>Acts 1:9

Title attributions

Template:Main

The New Testament attributes a wide range of titles to Jesus by the authors of the gospels, by Jesus himself, a voice from Heaven (often assumed to be God) during the Baptism and Transfiguration, as well as various groups of people such as the disciples, and even demons throughout the narrative.<ref name=Senior >Jesus: a Gospel portrait by Donald Senior 1992 ISBN 0-8091-3338-5 pages 145-147</ref><ref>The Titles of Jesus in Christology: Their History in Early Christianity by Ferdinand Hahn, Harold Knight, George Ogg 2002 ISBN 0-227-17085-7 pages 11-12</ref> The emphasis on the titles used in each of the four canonical gospels gives a different emphasis to the portrayal of Jesus in that gospel.<ref name="MisJ">Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4.</ref><ref name="Harris">Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref><ref name="Thompson portrait">Thompson, Frank Charles, ed. The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible. Zondervan Bible Publishers, Grand Rapids. 1983. p. 1563.</ref>

[[File:Sargis Pitsak.jpg|thumb|upright|First page of a 14th century Gospel of Mark, applying 2 titles to Jesus: "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God".]] Two of the key titles used for Jesus in the New Testament are Christ and Son of God.<ref name=Pannenberg30 /><ref>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Messiah</ref> The opening words in Mark 1:1 attribute both Christ and Son of God as titles, reaffirming the second title again in Mark 1:11.<ref name= Hurtado288 >Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0-8028-3167-2 page 288</ref> The Gospel of Matthew also begins in 1:1 with the Christ title and reaffirms it in Matthew 1:16.<ref name= Hurtado288 /> Beyond the declarations by the Gospel writers, titles are attributed in the narrative. The statement by Peter in Matthew 16:16 ("you are the Christ, the Son of the living God") is a key turning point in the Gospel narrative, where Jesus is proclaimed as both Christ and Son of God by his followers and he accepts both titles.<ref name="Kingsburyxvi"/> The immediate declaration by Jesus that the titles were revealed to Peter by "my Father who is in Heaven" not only endorses both titles as divine revelation but includes a separate assertion of sonship by Jesus within the same statement.<ref name="OneTeacher"/>

In the Gospel of John, Jesus refers to himself as the Son of God far more frequently than in the synoptic gospels.<ref>Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0-8028-3167-2 pages 363-363</ref> In a number of other episodes Jesus claims sonship by referring to the Father, e.g. in Luke 2:49 when he is found in the temple a young Jesus calls the temple "my Father's house", just as he does later in John 2:16 in the Cleansing of the Temple episode.<ref name="Bromiley571"/> However, scholars still debate if Jesus was making a claim to divinity in these statements.<ref>Template:Cite document.</ref><ref>Template:Cite document</ref><ref>Template:Cite document</ref> In John 11:27 Martha tells Jesus "you are the Christ, the Son of God", signifying that both titles were later used (yet considered distinct) in the narrative.<ref>Christianity by Donald W. Ekstrand 2008 ISBN 1-60477-929-2 page 81</ref> While the Gospel of John frequently uses the Son of God title, the Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus as a prophet.<ref>Themes of St. Luke by John Navone 1970 ISBN 88-7652-358-8 page 132</ref>

One of the most frequent titles for Jesus in the New Testament is the Greek word Kyrios (κύριος) which can mean God, Lord or master and is used to refers to him over 700 times.<ref name =mercer >Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 pages 520-525</ref><ref name=Cullmann >The Christology of the New Testament by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 pages 234-237</ref> In everyday Aramaic, Mari was a very respectful form of polite address, well above "Teacher" and similar to Rabbi. In Greek this has at times been translated as Kyrios.<ref name=Cullmann2 >The Christology of the New Testament by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 page 202</ref> The Rabbi title is used in several New Testament episodes to refer to Jesus, but more often in the Gospel of John than elsewhere and does not appear in the Gospel of Luke at all.<ref name=Henrich >Great Themes of the Bible, Volume 2 by Sarah S. Henrich 2007 ISBN 0-664-23064-4 page 18</ref> Although Jesus accepts this title in the narrative, in Matthew 23:1-8 he rejected the title of Rabbi for his disciples, saying: "But be not ye called Rabbi".<ref name=Henrich /><ref name=Herzog15 >Prophet and teacher: an introduction to the historical Jesus by William R. Herzog 2005 ISBN 0-664-22528-4 page 15</ref><ref>God with us by Mark Allan Powell 1995 ISBN 0-8006-2881-0 pages 80-82</ref>

Some New Testament scholars argue that Jesus claimed to be God through his frequent use of "I am" (Ego eimi in Greek and Qui est in Latin). This term is used by Jesus in the Gospel of John on several occasions to refer to himself, seven times with specific titles.<ref name=Rahner >Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 page 1082</ref><ref name=Hurtado370 >Hurtado, Larry W. (June 2003). Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-6070-2 pages 370-371</ref> It is used in the Gospel of John both with or without a predicate.<ref name=Hurtado370 /> The seven uses with a predicate that have resulted in titles for Jesus are: Bread of Life, Light of the World, the Door, the Good Shepherd, the Resurrection of Life, the Way, the Truth and the Life, the Vine.<ref name=Rahner /> It is also used without a predicate, which is very unusual in Greek and Christologists usually interpret it as God's own self-declaration.<ref name=Hurtado370 /> In John 8:24 Jesus states: "unless you believe that I am you will die in your sins" and in John 8:59 the crowd attempts to stone Jesus in response to his statement that "Before Abraham was, I am".<ref name=Hurtado370 /> However, many modern scholars believe that Jesus never made a claim to divinity.<ref>Template:Cite document</ref><ref>Template:Cite document</ref> John Hick says that this "is a point of broad agreement among New Testament scholars".<ref>John Hick, The Metaphor of God Incarnate, (Westminster John Knox Press, 2006) page 27.</ref>

The Gospel of John opens by identifying Jesus as the divine Logos in John 1:1-18. The Greek term Logos (Template:Lang) is often translated as "the Word" in English.<ref>Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon: logos, 1889.</ref> The identification of Jesus as the Logos which became Incarnate appears only at the beginning of the Gospel of John and the term Logos is used only in two other Johannine passages: 1 John 1:1 and Revelation 19:13.<ref name=Cullmann258 >The Christology of the New Testament by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 page 258</ref><ref name=Bromiley1086 >The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0-8028-3785-9 page 106</ref><ref name=Mercer520 >Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 520</ref><ref name=Gerald144 >Introduction to theology by Owen C. Thomas, Ellen K. Wondra 2002 ISBN 0-8192-1897-9 page 173</ref> John's Logos statements build on each other: the statement that the Logos existed "at the beginning" asserts that as Logos Jesus was an eternal being like God; that the Logos was "with God" asserts the distinction of Jesus from God; and Logos "was God" states the unity of Jesus with God.<ref name="Harris John" /><ref name=Bromiley1086 /><ref name=Gilbert216 >A Complete Introduction to the Bible by Christopher Gilbert 2009 ISBN 0-8091-4552-9 page 216</ref><ref name="Stagg">Template:Cite book</ref>

Some authors have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament had meanings in the 1st century quite different from those meanings ascribed today, e.g. "messiah" and “Son of David” is found elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible and other Jewish texts to refer to the heir to the throne; "son of God" to refer to a righteous person; and "son of man" to signify the third person in the subjective case and a polite way to refer to one's self.<ref name="vermes">Vermes (1981).</ref>

Historical views

Existence

Template:Main Template:See also [[File:WorksJosephus1640TP.jpg|thumb|180px|A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus, a 1st century non-Christian historian who referred to Jesus.<ref name= Blomberg431 /><ref name=JospehusM662 >The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius Josephus, William Whiston, Paul L. Maier ISBN 0-8254-2924-2 pages 662-663</ref>]]

The Christian gospels were written primarily as theological documents rather than historical chronicles.<ref name=Wiarda75 /><ref name=Turner613 /> However, the question of the existence of Jesus as a historical figure should be distinguished from discussions about the historicity of specific episodes in the gospels, the chronology they present, or theological issues regarding his divinity.<ref name=MAPowell168 >Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 pages 168-173</ref> A number of historical non-Christian documents, such as Jewish and Greco-Roman sources, have been used in historical analyses of the existence of Jesus.<ref name= Blomberg431 >Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 431-436</ref> Most critical historians agree that Jesus existed and regard events such as his baptism and his crucifixion as historical.<ref name="autogenerated19">Template:Cite document</ref><ref>Brown (1994) p. 964</ref><ref>Template:Cite document</ref><ref name="autogenerated236">Template:Cite document</ref>

Robert E. Van Voorst states that the idea of the non-historicity of the existence of Jesus has always been controversial, and has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines, and that classical historians, as well as biblical scholars now regard it as effectively refuted.<ref name="voorst16" /> Walter P. Weaver, among others, states that the denial of Jesus’ existence has never convinced any large number of people, in or out of technical circles.<ref name="autogenerated19"/><ref name="autogenerated236"/><ref>Walter P. Weaver, The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century, Continuum International, 1999 page 71</ref>

Separate non-Christian sources used to establish the historical existence of Jesus include the works of 1st century Roman historians Josephus and Tacitus.<ref name="Blomberg431"/><ref>Van Voorst (2000) pp. 39-53</ref> Josephus scholar Louis H. Feldman has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus' reference to Jesus in Antiquities 20, 9, 1 and it is only disputed by a small number of scholars.<ref name=JospehusM662 /><ref>Josephus XX by Louis H. Feldman 1965, ISBN 0674995023 page 496</ref><ref>Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence ISBN 0-8028-4368-9. page 83</ref><ref>Flavius Josephus; Maier, Paul L. (December 1995). Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war ISBN 978-0-8254-3260-6 pages 284-285</ref> Bart D. Ehrman states that the existence of Jesus and his crucifixion by the Romans is attested to by a wide range of sources, including Josephus and Tacitus.<ref>The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings by Bart D. Ehrman 1999 ISBN 0-19-512639-4 page 248</ref>

The historical existence of Jesus as a person is a separate issue from any religious discussions about his divinity, or the theological issues relating to his nature as man or God.<ref>Jesus-God and Man by Wolfhart Pannenberg 1983 ISBN 0664244688 page 316</ref> Leading scientific atheist Richard Dawkins specifically separates the question of the existence of Jesus from the attribution of supernatural powers to him, or the accuracy of the Christian gospels.<ref name=dawkings122/> Dawkins does not deny the existence of Jesus, although he dismisses the reliability of the gospel accounts.<ref name=dawkings122>The God Delusion by Richard Dawkins 2006 ISBN 0618680004 page 122</ref> This position is also held by leading critic G. A. Wells, who used to argue that Jesus never existed, but has since changed his views and no longer rejects it.<ref>Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607-856-6 page 660</ref>

In antiquity, the existence of Jesus was never denied by those who opposed Christianity.<ref name=Rahner730>Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 pages 730-731</ref> While theological differences existed among early Christians regarding the nature of Jesus (e.g. monophysitism, miaphysitism, Docetism, Nestorianism, etc.) these were debates in Christian theology, not about the historical existence of Jesus.<ref name="EdHindson">Ed Hindson, Ergun Caner, The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for The Truth of Christianity, page 179 (Harvest House Publishers, 2008). ISBN 978-0-7369-2084-1</ref><ref>The Oxford handbook of early Christian studies by Susan Ashbrook Harvey, David G. Hunter 2008 ISBN 0199271569 page 378</ref> Although a very small number of modern scholars argue that Jesus never existed, that view is a distinct minority and most scholars consider theories that Jesus' existence was a Christian invention as implausible.<ref name=MAPowell168 /><ref>Graham Stanton, The Gospels and Jesus 2002 ISBN 0-19-924616-5 Oxford University Press page 145</ref><ref>Cambridge companion to Jesus by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1 pages 123-124</ref>

Language, race and appearance

Template:See also

Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.<ref>Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight, I. Howard Marshall, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (InterVarsity Press, 1992), page 442</ref> The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD/CE include the Semitic Aramaic and Hebrew languages as well as Greek, with Aramaic being the predominant language.<ref name=BarrLang >James Barr, Which language did Jesus speak, Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, 1970; 53(1) pages 9-29 [4]</ref><ref name=Porter110 >Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament by Stanley E. Porter 1997 ISBN 90-04-09921-2 pages 110-112</ref> Most scholars agree that during the early part of 1st century AD/CE Aramaic was the mother tongue of virtually all women in Galilee and Judae.<ref name=Hamp3 >Discovering the language of Jesus by Douglas Hamp 2005 ISBN 1-59751-017-3 page 3-4</ref> Most scholars support the theory that Jesus spoke Aramaic and that he may have also spoken Hebrew and Greek.<ref name=BarrLang /><ref name=Porter110 /><ref>Jesus in history and myth by R. Joseph Hoffmann 1986 ISBN 0-87975-332-3 page 98</ref><ref>James Barr's review article Which language did Jesus speak (referenced above) states that Aramaic has the widest support among scholars.</ref> In a review of the state of modern scholarship, Amy-Jill Levine stated: "Beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish' rarely does scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means."<ref name=AmyJ10>Amy-Jill Levine in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press 2006 ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 page 10</ref>

[[File:ChineseJesus.jpg|thumb|180px|The representation of the race of Jesus has been influenced by cultural settings.<ref name=LHoulden63 >Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 082648011X pages 63-99</ref><ref name=Erricker44 /> A Chinese illustration, Beijing, 1879.]] The New Testament includes no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death and its narrative is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it discusses.<ref name=JensenBWell >Robin M. Jensen "Jesus in Christian art", Chapter 29 of The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 ISBN 1-4051-9362-X page 477-502</ref><ref name=Perkinson30 >The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France by Stephen Perkinson 2009 ISBN 0-226-65879-1 page 30</ref><ref name=Kidd48 >The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world by Colin Kidd 2006 ISBN 0-521-79324-6 pages 48-51</ref> The synoptic gospels include the account of the Transfiguration of Jesus during which he was glorified with "his face shining as the sun" but do not provide details of his everyday appearance.<ref name="Nobbs"/><ref name="Barton132"/> The Book of Revelation describes the features of a glorified Jesus in a vision (1:13-16), but the vision refers to Jesus in heavenly form, after his death.<ref>Revelation by William C. Pender 1998 ISBN 0-664-22858-5 pages 14-16</ref><ref>Revelation 1-11 by John MacArthur, Jr. ISBN pages 37-39</ref> Old Testament references about the coming Messiah have been projected forward to form conjectures about the appearance of Jesus on theological, rather than historical grounds; e.g. Isaiah 53:2 which refers to the coming Messiah as "no beauty that we should desire him" and Psalm 45:2-3 which describes him as "fairer than the children of men", often interpreted as a description of his physical appearance.<ref>The Cross of Christ by John R. W. Stott, Alister McGrath 2006 ISBN 0-8308-3320-X page 145</ref><ref>Christianity, art, and transformation by John W. De Gruchy 2001 ISBN 0-521-77205-2 page 122</ref><ref>Brother Jesus: the Nazarene through Jewish eyes by Schalom Ben-Chorin 2001 ISBN 0-8203-2256-3 page 111</ref><ref>Understanding early Christian art by Robin Margaret Jensen 2000 ISBN 0-415-20454-2 page 127</ref>

Despite the lack of direct biblical or historical references, from the 2nd century, various theories about the race of Jesus were advanced, e.g. by Justin Martyr based on arguments on the genealogy of Jesus.<ref name=Strauss114 >The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined by David Friedrich Strauss 2010 ISBN 1-61640-309-8 pages 114-116</ref> These arguments have been subject to debate for centuries among modern scholars.<ref name=Strauss114 /> Another suggestion by anti-Christian pagan author Celsus (who was likely aware of the gospel texts, and mocked them) that Jesus' father was a Roman soldier named Pantera drew responses from Origen who considered it a fabricated story, and scholars continue to view it as having no historical basis.<ref>The legacy of John: second-century reception of the Fourth Gospel by Tuomas Rasimus 2009 ISBN 90-04-17633-0 page 251</ref><ref>The written gospel by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl, Donald Alfred Hagner 2005 ISBN 0-521-83285-3 page 233</ref><ref>Contra Celsum by Origen, Henry Chadwick 1980 ISBN 0-521-29576-9 page 32</ref><ref>Patrick, John The Apology of Origen in Reply to Celsus 2009 ISBN 1-110-13388-X pages 22–24</ref><ref>Mary in the New Testament by Raymond Edward Brown, et al. 1978 ISBN 0-8091-2168-9 page 262</ref><ref>Marcus Borg, John Dominic Crossan (2007). The First Christmas: What the Gospels Really Teach About Jesus's Birth. HarperOne. p. 104. ISBN 0-06-143070-6.</ref>

By the Middle Ages a number of documents, generally of unknown origin, were circulating with details of the appearance of Jesus, e.g. a forged letter by Publius Lentulus, the Governor of Judea, to the Roman Senate, which according to most scholars dates to around the year 1300 and was composed to compensate for the lack of any physical description of Jesus in the Bible.<ref name="Perkinson30"/> Other spurious references include the Archko Volume and the letter of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius Caesar, the descriptions in which were most likely composed in the Middle Ages.<ref>The Oxford companion to the Bible 1993 ISBN 0-19-504645-5 page 41</ref><ref>Making Sense of the New Testament by Craig L. Blomberg 2004 ISBN 0-8010-2747-0 pages 3-4</ref><ref>Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5113-5 pages 6-9</ref>

By the 19th century theories that Jesus was of Aryan descent, in particular European, were developed and later appealed to those who wanted nothing Jewish about Jesus, e.g. Nazi theologians.<ref name=Kidd48 /><ref>The Aryan Jesus: Christian theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany by Susannah Heschel 2008 ISBN 0-691-12531-7 page 32</ref> These theories usually also include the reasoning that Jesus was Aryan because Galilee was an Aryan region, but have not gained scholarly acceptance.<ref name="Kidd48"/><ref name=Goguel255 >Jesus and the origins of Christianity by Maurice Goguel, New York, Harper, 1960 page 255</ref> By the 20th century, theories had also been proposed that Jesus was of black African descent, e.g. based on the argument that Mary his mother was a descendant of black Jews.<ref>"The Black Christ" Chapter 25 of The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 ISBN 1-4051-9362-X pages 410-420</ref> By the 21st century the race of Jesus was being addressed on television, e.g. a 2001 BBC program that suggested specific physical characteristics for him.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=BBC>Template:Cite news</ref> In the 21st century, the race of Jesus also had a cultural component in cinematic portrayals, e.g. actor James Caviezel was made-up to look semitic as he portrayed Jesus.<ref>Politics and film: the political culture of film in the United States by Daniel P. Franklin 2006 ISBN 0-7425-3809-5 page 112-114</ref><ref>Cinéma divinité: religion, theology and the Bible in film by Eric S. Christianson 2011 ISBN 0-334-02988-0 page 327</ref>

Depictions

Template:Main Despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, for two millennia a wide range of depictions of Jesus have appeared, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.<ref name=LHoulden63 /><ref name=Erricker44 >Teaching Christianity: a world religions approach by Clive Erricker 1987 ISBN 0-7188-2634-5 page 44</ref><ref name=Perkinson30 /> As in other Christian art, the earliest depictions date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, and survivors are primarily found in the Catacombs of Rome.<ref name=Benedetto51 >The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History by Robert Benedetto 2006 ISBN 0-8264-8011-X pages 51-53</ref> In these early depictions, which use popular rather than elite Greco-Roman styles, Jesus is usually shown as a youthful figure without a beard and with curly hair, often with different features from the other men in the scenes, such as his disciples or the Romans.<ref name=JensenBWell />

[[File:Dura-europos-paralytic.jpg|left|thumb|180px|Healing the paralytic, a very early depiction of Jesus, c. 235 Dura-Europos church.]] Although some images exist at the synagogue at Dura-Europos, Judaism forbade images, and there is no record of its influence on the depictions of Jesus.<ref name=LHoulden63 /> Christian depictions of the 3rd and 4th centuries typically focused on New Testament scenes of healings and other miracles.<ref name= Benedetto51 /> Following the conversion of Constantine in the 4th century, Christian art found many wealthy donors and flourished.<ref name= Benedetto51 /> In this period Jesus began to have more mature features, and was shown with a beard.<ref name=JensenBWell /> A new development at this time was the depiction of Jesus without a narrative context, but just as a figure by himself.<ref name=JensenBWell />

By the 5th century depictions of the Passion began to appear, perhaps reflecting a change in the theological focus of the early Church.<ref name= Benedetto51 /> The 6th century Rabbula Gospels includes some of the earliest surviving images of the crucifixion and resurrection.<ref name= Benedetto51 /> By the 6th century the bearded depiction of Jesus had become standard in the East, though the West, especially in northern Europe, continued to mix bearded and unbearded depictions for several centuries. The depiction with a longish face, long straight brown hair parted in the middle, and almond shaped eyes shows consistency from the 6th century to the present. Various legends developed which were believed to authenticate the historical accuracy of the standard depiction, such as the image of Edessa and later the Veil of Veronica.<ref name=JensenBWell /> Partly to aid recognition of the scenes, narrative depictions of the Life of Christ focused increasingly on the events celebrated in the major feasts of the church calendar, and the events of the Passion, neglecting the miracles and other events of Jesus's public ministry, except for the raising of Lazarus, where the mummy-like wrapped body was shown standing upright, giving an unmistakable visual signature.Template:Citation needed A cruciform halo was worn only by Jesus (and the other persons of the Trinity), while plain halos distinguished Mary, the Apostles and other saints, helping the viewer to read increasingly populated scenes.Template:Citation needed

The Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century art was permitted again.<ref name=LHoulden63 /> The Transfiguration of Jesus was a major theme in the East and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon of the Transfiguration.<ref name=Bigham226 >The image of God the Father in Orthodox theology and iconography by Steven Bigham 1995 ISBN 1-879038-15-3 pages 226-227</ref> However, while Western depictions aim for proportion, in the Eastern icons the abolition of perspective and alterations in the size and proportion of an image aim to reaches beyond man's earthly dwellings.<ref>Archimandrite Vasileios of Stavronikita, "Icons as Liturgical Analogies" in Hymn of entry: liturgy and life in the Orthodox church 1997 ISBN 978-0-88141-026-6 pages 81-90</ref>

The 13th century witnessed a turning point in the portrayal of the powerful Kyrios image of Jesus as a wonder worker in the West, as the Franciscans began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death via the nativity scene as well as the crucifixion.<ref name=Brooke >The image of St Francis by Rosalind B. Brooke 2006 ISBN 0-521-78291-0 pages 183-184</ref><ref name=Raab >The tradition of Catholic prayer by Christian Raab, Harry Hagan, St. Meinrad Archabbey 2007 ISBN 0-8146-3184-3 pages 86-87</ref><ref name=GFinger >The vitality of the Christian tradition by George Finger Thomas 1944 ISBN 0-8369-2378-2 page 110-112</ref> The Franciscans approached both ends of this spectrum of emotions and as the joys of the Nativity of were added to the agony of crucifixion a whole new range of emotions were ushered in, with wide ranging cultural impact on the image of Jesus for centuries thereafter.<ref name=Brooke /><ref name=GFinger /><ref>La vida sacra: contemporary Hispanic sacramental theology by James L. Empereur, Eduardo Fernández 2006 ISBN 0-7425-5157-1 pages 3-5</ref><ref>Philippines by Lily Rose R. Tope, Detch P. Nonan-Mercado 2005 ISBN 0-7614-1475-4 page 109</ref>

The Renaissance brought forth a number of artists who focused on the depictions of Jesus and after Giotto, Fra Angelico and others systematically developed uncluttered images that focused on the depiction of Jesus with an ideal human beauty.<ref name=LHoulden63 /> Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper which is considered the first work of High Renaissance art due to its high level of harmony became well known for depicting Jesus surrounded by varying emotions of the individual apostles at the announcement of the betrayal.<ref>Experiencing Art Around Us by Thomas Buser 2005 ISBN 978-0-534-64114-6 pages 382-383</ref><ref>Leonardo da Vinci, the Last Supper: a Cosmic Drama and an Act of Redemption by Michael Ladwein 2006 pages 27 and 60</ref> Meanwhile, the Protestant Reformation, especially in its first decades, violently objected to almost all public religious images as idolaterous, and vast numbers were destroyed.

By the end of the 19th century, new reports of miraculous images of Jesus had appeared and continue to receive significant attention, e.g. Secondo Pia's 1898 photograph of the Shroud of Turin, one of the most controversial artifacts in history, which during its May 2010 exposition it was visited by over 2 million people.<ref>Arthur Barnes, 2003 Holy Shroud of Turin Kessinger Press ISBN 0-7661-3425-3 pages 2-9</ref><ref name=WMeacham >William Meacham, The Authentication of the Turin Shroud:An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology, Current Anthropology, Volume 24, No 3, June 1983</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Another 20th century depiction of Jesus, namely the Divine Mercy image based on Faustina Kowalska's reported vision has over 100 million followers.<ref> Catherine M. Odell, 1998, Faustina: Apostle of Divine Mercy OSV Press ISBN 978-0-87973-923-2 page 165</ref><ref>Am With You Always by Benedict Groeschel 2010 ISBN 978-1-58617-257-2 page 548</ref> The first cinematic portrayal of Jesus was in the 1897 film La Passion du Christ produced in Paris, which lasted 5 minutes.<ref>The Challenge of the Silver Screen (Studies in Religion and the Arts) ISBN By Freek L. Bakker 2009 ISBN 90-04-16861-3 page 1</ref><ref>Encyclopedia of early cinema by Richard Abel2005 ISBN 0-415-23440-9 page 518</ref> Thereafter cinematic portrayals have continued to show Jesus with a beard in the standard western depiction that resembles traditional images.<ref name=BWell526 >The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 ISBN 1-4051-9362-X page 526</ref>

Analysis of the gospels

Template:Main The historical-critical method (or higher criticism) is used to examine the Bible for clues about the historical Jesus, whereby sayings and events that are more likely to be genuine in the opinion of scholars are used to construct their portraits of Jesus. Standard historical methods are used to discern the authorship of each book, and its likely date of composition.<ref name = "JInt">Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus, Interrupted, HarperCollins, 2009. ISBN 0-06-117393-2</ref>

The earliest extant texts which refer to Jesus are Paul's letters (mid-1st century), which affirm Jesus' crucifixion. Keulman and Gregory hold that the Gospel of Thomas, a collection of 114 sayings of Jesus, predates the four orthodox gospels, and believe it may have been composed around mid-1st century.<ref>Kenneth Keulman, Critical Moments in Religious History, Mercer University Press, p. 56</ref><ref>Andrew F. Gregory, Christopher Mark Tuckett, The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers, Oxford University Press, p. 178</ref>

[[File:Synoptic problem Markan priority.png|thumb|left|150px|The Markan priority hypothesis.]] Biblical scholars hold that the works describing Jesus were initially communicated by oral tradition, and were not committed to writing until several decades after Jesus' crucifixion. After the original oral stories were written down in Greek, they were transcribed, and later translated into other languages. The books of the New Testament had mostly been written by 100 AD/CE, making them, at least the synoptic gospels, historically relevant.<ref>"The New Testament was complete, or substantially complete, about AD 100, the majority of the writings being in existence twenty to forty years before this...the situation is encouraging from the historian's point of view, for the first three gospels were written at a time when many were alive who could remember the things that Jesus said and did... At any rate, the time elapsing between the evangelic events and the writing of most of the New Testament books was, from the standpoint of historical research, satisfactorily short." Bruce, F. F.: The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?, pp. 12–14, InterVarsity Press, USA, 1997.</ref> The Gospel tradition certainly preserves several fragments of Jesus' teaching.<ref>"There is no reason to doubt that we have in the Gospel tradition several authentic fragments of His [Jesus Christ's] teaching (albeit in Greek translation)." "Jesus Christ". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> The Markan priority hypothesis holds that the Gospel of Mark was written first c. 70 AD/CE.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Matthew is placed at being sometime after this date and Luke is thought to have been written between 70 and 100 AD/CE.<ref name="Harris Gospels">Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "The Gospels" p. 266-268</ref><ref name="ODCC self">"Matthew, Gospel acc. to St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> According to the Q source hypothesis supported by a majority of modern scholars, the gospels were written not by the four evangelists themselves but derived from other sources.<ref name = "JInt"/> A minority of prominent scholars, such as J. A. T. Robinson, have maintained that the writers of the gospels of Matthew, Mark and John were either apostles and eyewitness to Jesus' ministry and death, or were close to those who had been.<ref name="Boyd, Gregory P 370-380">Boyd, Gregory. "The Jesus Legend: The Case for the Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition". P 370-380. 2007. Baker Academic. ISBN 0-8010-3114-1</ref><ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998">Strobel, Lee. ”The Case for Christ”. 1998.</ref><ref name="Bruce, F.F. 1981">Bruce, F.F. (1981). The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?. InterVarsity Press.</ref><ref name="Bruce, F.F. 1981"/>

Critical scholars consider scriptural accounts more likely when they are attested in multiple texts, plausible in Jesus' historical environment, and potentially embarrassing to the author's Christian community. The "criterion of embarrassment" holds that stories about events with aspects embarrassing to Christians (such as the denial of Jesus by Peter, or the fleeing of Jesus' followers after his arrest) would likely not have been included if those accounts were fictional.<ref name="A Marginal Jew">Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Doubleday: 1991. vol 1: pp. 168–171.</ref> Sayings attributed to Jesus are deemed more likely to reflect his character when they are distinctive, vivid, paradoxical, surprising, and contrary to social and religious expectations, such as "Blessed are the poor".<ref name="5G intro">Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Introduction, pp. 1–38</ref> Short, memorable parables and aphorisms capable of being transmitted orally are also thought more likely to be authentic.<ref name="5G intro" />

Scholars use textual criticism to determine which variants among manuscripts is original and how much they may have changed. Contemporary textual critic Bart D. Ehrman cites numerous places where he maintains that the gospels, and other New Testament books, were apparently altered by Christian scribes.<ref name="MisJ" /> Craig Blomberg, F. F. Bruce and Gregory Boyd view the evidence as conclusive that very few alterations were made by Christian scribes, while none of them (three or four in total) were important.<ref name="Boyd, Gregory P 370-380"/><ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998"/><ref name="Bruce, F.F. 1981"/> According to Normal Geisler and William Nix, "The New Testament, then, has not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book─a form that is 99.5% pure"<ref name="Bruce, F.F. 1981"/>Template:Rp

Historical analysis

Template:Main [[File:Papyrus 1 - recto.jpg|thumb|upright|A page from Matthew, from Papyrus 1, c. 250.]]

After the Enlightenment, scholars began producing characterizations of the life of Jesus by comparing New Testament accounts with other sources that shed light on the social and political background of his time, and used the historical method to produce their own version of the "life of Jesus" which aimed to fill gaps in gospel accounts, as well as excluding some material scholars deemed historically implausible.<ref name=MPowell13>Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 pages 13-26</ref><ref name="Schaeffer1968">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Dunn125>D. G.Dunn, Jesus Remembered, Volume 1 of Christianity in the Making, Eerdmans Publishing, 2003 pp. 125-27.</ref><ref>Ancient Christian gospels: their history and development by Helmut Köster 1992 ISBN 0-334-02450-1 pages 7-10</ref> By the end of the 19th century hundreds of such accounts existed, and in the early 20th century this resulted in the Quest for the historical Jesus, a term coined by Albert Schweitzer.<ref name=MPowell13 />

The historical analysis has relied on Biblical criticism, as well as the political, cultural, and religious crises and movements in late Second Temple Judaism and in Roman Judaea, including differences between Galilee and Judaea, and between different sects such as the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes and Zealots,<ref>For a comparison of the Jesus movement to the Zealots, see S. G. F. Brandon, Jesus and the Zealots: a study of the political factor in primitive Christianity, Manchester University Press (1967) ISBN 0-684-31010-4</ref><ref name="comparison">For a general comparison of Jesus' teachings to other schools of first century Judaism, see John P. Meier, Companions and Competitors (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Volume 3) Anchor Bible, 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4.</ref> In the 1950s the second Quest began and resulted in a number of new models and theories.<ref name=MPowell13 /> The third Quest began in the 1990s, and continued into the 21st century, producing a variety of perspectives on the life of Jesus.<ref name=MPowell13 /> Scholars generally agree that Jesus was a Jewish Galilean, but not a Roman citizen.<ref name=Bart164>Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium by Bart D. Ehrman 1999 ISBN 0-19-512473-1 page 164</ref><ref name=Blomberg24>Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 page 24</ref> Christina Kreinecker states that Jesus was simply a peregrinus (i.e. subject) of the Judea Province of the Roman Empire.<ref name=Kreinecker >Christina M. Kreinecker (University of Salzburg), How Power and Province Communicate: Some Remarks on the Language of (Non-) Conversation between Pilate and Jesus, in Light from the East: Papyrologische Kommentare zum Neuen Testament, (Verlag, 2010) page 169</ref>

However, although scholars agree on basic historical facts such as the crucifixion of Jesus, the various "portraits of Jesus" they construct often differ from each other, and from the image found in the gospels.<ref name=ScottK117 >The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 117-125</ref><ref name="Jesus 1993 p. 57">Sanders (1993) p. 57</ref>

The portraits of Jesus constructed by scholars often share a number of common, and at times overlapping building blocks, such as healer, philosopher, sage, apocalyptic preacher, or social reformer.<ref name="Dunn47 " /><ref name=ScottK117 /><ref name="Fredriksen" /> However, Bart Ehrman and separately Andreas Köstenberger contend that given the scarcity of historical sources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life.<ref name=ScottK117 /><ref name=Ehrman22>Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium by Bart D. Ehrman 1999 ISBN 0-19-512473-1 pages 22-23</ref><ref name=Evans337 >Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research by Craig A. Evans 1998 ISBN 90-04-11142-5 pages 337-341</ref> However, some scholars have suggested caution when reading modern meanings into terms such as rabbi at Jesus' time.<ref>The Galilean Jewishness of Jesus: retrieving the Jewish origins of Christianity, Bernard J. Lee, (Paulist Press, 1988), page 119-120</ref> At the time of Jesus the title rabbi was merely a general title for "teachers of the Law" and did not involve an official appointment.<ref>Mercer Dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Edgar V. McKnight and Roger A. Bullard 2001 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page</ref> Martin Hengel states that as a "teacher of Wisdom", Jesus was not a typical representatives of the official establishment of the time.<ref>Studies in Early Christology by Martin Hengel 1995 ISBN 0-567-09705-6 page 93</ref> William Herzog states that although Jesus was called a rabbi and a teacher he rejected the title rabbi in the synoptic gospels and did not identify himself with the established notion of rabbi at the time.<ref name="Herzog15 " />

An attribute used by many scholars to describe Jesus is a healer, a number of the same scholars also stating that he preached the restoration of God's kingdom.<ref name="TM1998">Theissen (1998)</ref><ref name= autogenerated7>Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. "Introduction," pp. 1–30</ref><ref name="Oxford:Historical">Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005—article "Historical Jesus, Quest of the"</ref> Many scholars also hold that the movement Jesus led (and his eschatology) were apocalyptic, as were the preachings of John the Baptist, but some scholars makes a distinction between John's apocalyptic ministry and Jesus' ethical teachings.<ref>Crossan, John Dominic. The essential Jesus. Edison: Castle Books. 1998. p. 146</ref><ref>See Schwietzer, Albert The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, pp. 370–371, 402. Scribner (1968), ISBN 0-02-089240-3; Ehrman, Bart Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium, Oxford University Press USA, 1999. ISBN 0-19-512474-X. Also see Crossan, John Dominic, The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus, pp. 305–344. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0-06-061659-8</ref> Another attribute used to describe Jesus are a sage who preached the wisdom of God, offering new interpretations of Old Testament teachings.<ref name=ScottK117 /><ref name=BenW161 >The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth by Ben Witherington 1997 ISBN 0-8308-1544-9 pages 161-163</ref> Two other views of Jesus are as a cynic philosopher and a social reformer who renounced material possessions and taught a new form of egalitarianism, social justice and equality among men and women as well as the abandonment of social class hierarchies.<ref name=ScottK117 /><ref name=Evans337 /><ref name=BenW116 >The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth by Ben Witherington 1997 ISBN 0-8308-1544-9 pages 116-120</ref><ref name=JEthics >Jesus and Virtue Ethics by Daniel J. Harrington 2005 ISBN pages 9-10</ref> Some historians argue that Jewish and Roman authorities in Jerusalem were wary of Galilean patriots, and that Jesus' preachings were regarded as troubling, and he was hence executed on political charges.<ref name="Harris HJ" /><ref name="Harris HJ" /><ref name="TM1998 R">Theissen (1998) p. 569–572</ref><ref>Haim Cohn, The Trial and Death of Jesus, Ktav Publishing House, 1977:129,133-134.</ref>

Historicity of events

Modern scholars consider the baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion to be the two historically certain facts about him, James Dunn stating that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent".<ref name=JDunn339>''Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 page 339</ref> Dunn states that these two facts "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.<ref name=JDunn339/> Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him.<ref>A Brief Introduction to the New Testament by Bart D. Ehrman 2008 ISBN 0-19-536934-3 page 136</ref> John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable.<ref>Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 211-214</ref> Although scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it, e.g. both E.P. Sanders and Paula Fredriksen support the historicity of the crucifixion, but contend that Jesus did not foretell of his own crucifixion, and that his prediction of the crucifixion is a Christian story.<ref name=Ernest125/> Geza Vermes also views the crucifixion a historical event but provides his own explanation and background for it.<ref name=Ernest125>A Century of Theological and Religious Studies in Britain, 1902-2002 by Ernest Nicholson 2004 ISBN 0-19-726305-4 pages 125-126</ref> John P. Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that based on the criterion of embarrassment Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.<ref name=JMeier126>John P. Meier "How do we decide what comes from Jesus" in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 ISBN 1-57506-100-7 pages 126-128</ref> Meier states that a number of other criteria, e.g. the criterion of multiple attestation (i.e. confirmation by more than one source), the criterion of coherence (i.e. that it fits with other historical elements) and the criterion of rejection (i.e. that it is not disputed by ancient sources) help establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event.<ref name=JMeier132>John P. Meier "How do we decide what comes from Jesus" in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 ISBN 1-57506-100-7 pages 132-136</ref>

Role of archaeology

Template:See also [[File:S0484.4.jpg|thumb|An Augustus denarius, stating CAESAR AVGVSTVS; and on the reverse: DIVVSIVLIV(S), which the population at large took to mean Son of God<ref name=Rhee /><ref name=Huskinson81 />]]

No documents written by Jesus exist,<ref>Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 019955787X pages 1-3 "As regards the 'things which Jesus did', let me note that he left no letters or other personal documents."—page 2</ref> and no specific archaeological remnants are directly attributed to him. The 21st century has witnessed an increase in scholarly interest in the integrated use of archaeology as an additional research component in arriving at a better understanding of the historical Jesus by illuminating the socio-economic and political background of his age.<ref name=AmyReed>Jonathan L. Reed, "Archaeological contributions to the study of Jesus and the Gospels" in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press 2006 ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 pages 40-47</ref><ref>Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence by Jonathan L. Reed 2002 ISBN 1563383942 pages xi-xii</ref><ref name=EvansPost >Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Charlesworth11 >"Jesus Research and Archaeology: A New Perspective" by James H. Charlesworth in Jesus and archaeology edited by James H. Charlesworth 2006 ISBN 080284880X pages 11-15</ref><ref name=Gowler102 /><ref name=EvansArch>Template:Cite book</ref>

James Charlesworth states that few modern scholars now want to overlook the archaeological discoveries that clarify the nature of life in Galilee and Judea during the time of Jesus.<ref name=Charlesworth11 /> Jonathan Reed states that chief contribution of archaeology to the study of the historical Jesus is the reconstruction of his social world.<ref name=Reed18 /> An example archaeological item that Reed mentions is the 1961 discovery of the Pilate Stone, which mentions the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, by whose order Jesus was crucified.<ref name=Reed18 >Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence by Jonathan L. Reed 2002 ISBN 1563383942 page 18</ref><ref>Historical Dictionary of Jesus by Daniel J. Harrington 2010 ISBN 0810876671 page 32</ref><ref>Studying the historical Jesus: evaluations of the state of current research by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1998 ISBN 9004111425 page 465</ref>

Reed also states that archaeological finding related to coinage can shed light on historical critical analysis. As an example, he refers to coins with the ""Divi filius" inscription.<ref name=AmyReed/> Although Roman Emperor Augustus called himself "Divi filius", and not "Dei filius" (Son of God), the line between been god and god-like was at times less than clear to the population at large, and the Roman court seems to have been aware of the necessity of keeping the ambiguity.<ref name=Rhee /><ref name=Huskinson81 >Experiencing Rome: culture, identity and power in the Roman Empire by Janet Huskinson 1999 ISBN 9780415212847 page 81</ref> Later, Tiberius who was emperor at the time of Jesus came to be accepted as the son of divus Augustus.<ref name=Rhee >Early Christian literature by Helen Rhee 2005 ISBN 0415354889 pages 159-161</ref> Reed discusses this coinage in the context of Template:Bibleverse (known as Render unto Caesar...) in which Jesus asks his disciples to look at a coin: "Whose portrait is this? And whose inscription?" and then advises them to "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's." Reed states that "the answer becomes much more subversive when one knows that Roman coinage proclaimed Caesar to be God".<ref name=AmyReed/>

David Gowler states that an interdisciplinary scholarly study of archeology, textual analysis and historical context can shed light on Jesus and his teachings.<ref name=Gowler102 >What are they saying about the historical Jesus? by David B. Gowler 2007 ISBN 080914445X page 102</ref> An example is the archeological studies at Capernaum. Despite the frequent references to Capernaum in the New Testament, little is said about it there.<ref name=Reed140 >"Jesus and Capernaum: Archeological and Gospel Stratigraohy" in Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence' by Jonathan L. Reed 2002 ISBN 1563383942 page 139-156</ref> However, recent archeological evidence show that unlike earlier assumptions, Capernaum was poor and small, without even a forum or agora.<ref name=Gowler102 /><ref name=Charlesworth127 >Jesus and archaeology edited by James H. Charlesworth 2006 ISBN 080284880X page 127</ref> This archaeological discovery thus resonates well with the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal sharing among the destitute in that area of Galilee.<ref name=Gowler102 /> Other archeological findings support the wealth of the ruling priests in Judea at the beginning of the first century.<ref name=EvansPost /><ref>Who Was Jesus? by Paul Copan and Craig A. Evans 2001 ISBN 0664224628 page 187</ref>

First century Jewish religious movements

Scholars refer to the religious background of the early 1st century to better reconstruct Jesus' life. Some scholars identify him with one or another group.

Pharisees were a powerful force in 1st-century Judaea. Early Christians shared several beliefs of the Pharisees, such as resurrection, retribution in the next world, angels, human freedom, and Divine Providence.<ref>"Pharisees", Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> After the fall of the Temple, the Pharisaic outlook was established in Rabbinic Judaism. Some scholars speculate that Jesus was himself a Pharisee.<ref>Based on a comparison of the gospels with the Talmud and other Jewish literature. Maccoby, Hyam Jesus the Pharisee, Scm Press, 2003. ISBN 0-334-02914-7; Falk, Harvey Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus, Wipf & Stock Publishers (2003). ISBN 1-59244-313-3.</ref> In Jesus' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the House of Hillel, which had been founded by the eminent Tanna, Hillel the Elder, and the House of Shammai. Jesus' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorce.Template:Bibleref2c<ref>Neusner, Jacob (2000). A Rabbi Talks With Jesus. Montreal; Ithaca: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2046-2. Rabbi Neusner contends that Jesus' teachings were closer to the House of Shammai than the House of Hillel.</ref> Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel's teachings (Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 31a) concerning the greatest commandmentTemplate:Bibleref2c and the Golden Rule.Template:Bibleref2c Historians do not know whether there were Pharisees in Galilee during Jesus' life, or what they would have been like.<ref name="ActJ">Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.</ref>

Sadducees were particularly powerful in Jerusalem. They accepted the written Law only, rejecting the traditional interpretations accepted by the Pharisees, such as belief in retribution in an afterlife, resurrection of the body, angels, and spirits. After Jesus caused a disturbance at the Temple, it was to have been the Sadducees who had him arrested and turned over to the Romans for execution. After the fall of Jerusalem, they disappeared from history.<ref>"Sadducees". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>

Essenes were apocalyptic ascetics, one of the three (or four) major Jewish schools of the time, though they were not mentioned in the New Testament.<ref>Based on a comparison of the gospels with the Dead Sea Scrolls, especially the Teacher of Righteousness and Pierced Messiah. Eisenman, Robert James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 0-14-025773-X; Stegemann, Hartmut The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus. Grand Rapids MI, 1998. See also Broshi, Magen, "What Jesus Learned from the Essenes", Biblical Archaeology Review, 30:1, pg. 32–37, 64. Magen notes similarities between Jesus' teachings on the virtue of poverty and divorce, and Essene teachings as related in Josephus' The Jewish Wars and in the Damascus Document of the Dead Sea Scrolls, respectively. See also Akers, Keith The Lost Religion of Jesus. Lantern, 2000. ISBN 1-930051-26-3</ref> Some scholars theorize that Jesus was an Essene, or close to them. Among these scholars is Pope Benedict XVI, who supposes in his book on Jesus that "it appears that not only John the Baptist, but possibly Jesus and his family as well, were close to the Qumran community."<ref>Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, p. 14</ref>

Zealots were a revolutionary party opposed to Roman rule, one of those parties that, according to Josephus inspired the fanatical stand in Jerusalem that led to its destruction in the year 70 AD/CE.<ref name="Cross-2005-Zealots">"Zealots". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Luke identifies Simon, a disciple, as a "zealot", which might mean a member of the Zealot party (which would therefore have been already in existence in the lifetime of Jesus) or a zealous person.<ref name="Cross-2005-Zealots" /> The notion that Jesus himself was a Zealot does not do justice to the earliest Synoptic material describing him.<ref>"Jesus Christ". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>

Mythical view

Template:Main Template:See also

The term "Christ myth theory" is an umbrella term that applies to a range of arguments that in one way or another question the authenticity of the existence of Jesus or the essential elements of his life as described in the Christian gospels.<ref name=GertTh23 /><ref name=Haber27 /><ref name=VVoorst7 /><ref name=Haber47 /> One viewpoint is that there was no real historical figure Jesus and that he was invented by Christians. Another viewpoint is that there was a person called Jesus, but much of the teachings and miracles attributed to him were either invented or symbolic references. Yet another view holds that the Jesus portrayed in the gospels is a composite character constructed from multiple people over a period of time.<ref name=GertTh23 >A theory of primitive Christian religion by Gerd Theissen 2003 ISBN 0-334-02913-9 pages 23-27</ref><ref name=Haber27 >The historical Jesus: ancient evidence for the life of Christ by Gary Habermas 1996 ISBN 0-89900-732-5 pages 27-31</ref><ref name=VVoorst7 >Van Voorst (2000) pp. 7-8</ref><ref name=Haber47 >The historical Jesus: ancient evidence for the life of Christ by Gary Habermas 1996 ISBN 0-89900-732-5 pages 47-51</ref>

Supporters of the various Christ myth theories point to the lack of any known written references to Jesus during his lifetime and the relative scarcity of non-Christian references to him in the 1st century, and dispute the veracity of the existing accounts about him.<ref>The Jesus legend: a case for the historical reliability of the synoptic gospels' by Paul R. Eddy, Gregory A. Boyd 2007 ISBN 0-8010-3114-1 page 162</ref>

[[File:David Friedrich Strauß sitzend mit Buch.jpg|thumb||150px|David Strauss, the 19th century founder of Christ myth theory.<ref name=Camb214 />]] Among the variants of the Jesus myth theory, the notion that Jesus never existed has little scholarly support, and although some modern scholars adhere to it, they remain a distinct minority; most scholars involved with historical Jesus research believe that his existence can be established using documentary and other evidence.<ref name="voorst16"/><ref name=CambridgeJesus /><ref name="powell168"/><ref name="weaver71"/><ref name="guardian1"/><ref name="britac2006"/>

In the context of historical theories, the hypothesis that Jesus never existed is a rather recent topic, and in antiquity his existence was never doubted, even by those who were critical of Christian teachings.<ref name=Rahner730 /> In the early 18th century, friction between the church establishment and some theologians, coupled with the growing emphasis on rationalism, resulted in discord between the English deists and the church, and John Toland, Anthony Collins and Thomas Woolston planted the seeds of discontent.<ref name=Camb214 >The Cambridge companion to Jesus by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1 pages 141-144</ref><ref>Dictionary of biblical criticism and interpretation by Stanley E. Porter 2009 ISBN 0-415-20100-4 page 94</ref>

The beginnings of the formal denial of the existence of Jesus can be traced to late 18th-century France, and the works of Constantin-Volney and Charles Dupuis.<ref name=Weaver45 >The historical Jesus in the twentieth century, 1900-1950 by Walter P. Weaver 1999 ISBN 1-56338-280-6 page 45-50</ref> The more methodical writings of David Friedrich Strauss caused an uproar in Europe in 1835, and Strauss became known as the founder of Christ myth theory, his approach having been influenced by the epistemological views of Leibniz and Spinoza.<ref name=Camb214>The Cambridge companion to Jesus by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1 pages 214-215</ref><ref name=Dawes77 /> Strauss did not deny the existence of Jesus, but believed that very few facts could be known about him and characterized the miraculous accounts in the gospels as "mythical".<ref name=Dawes77 >The historical Jesus question by Gregory W. Dawes 2001 ISBN 0-664-22458-X pages 77-79</ref><ref>The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined by David Friedrich Strauss 2010 ISBN 1-61640-309-8 pages 39-43 and 87-91</ref><ref>The making of the new spirituality by James A. Herrick 2003 ISBN 0-8308-2398-0 pages 58–65</ref> At about the same time in Berlin, Bruno Bauer supported somewhat similar ideas.<ref name=Weaver45 /><ref name=BWellCP64 >The Blackwell Guide to Continental Philosophy edited by Robert Solomon, David Sherman 2008 ISBN 978-1-4051-4304-2 page 64</ref> Although both Strauss and Bauer drew on Hegel, their views did not coincide, and often conflicted.<ref>Biographical dictionary of literary influences: the nineteenth century by John Powell 2000 ISBN 0-313-30422-X page 37</ref><ref>The philosophy and politics of Bruno Bauer by Douglas Moggach 2003 ISBN 0-521-81977-6 page 62</ref> Karl Marx, a student and at the time a close friend of Bauer, was significantly influenced by him, as well as Hegel and Strauss, setting the stage for the denial of Jesus within communism.<ref name=BWellCP64 /><ref>Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx: the influence of Bruno Bauer on Marx's thought by Zvi Rosen 1977 ISBN 90-247-1948-8 pages 127-129</ref><ref name=Doughert >The logic of religion by Jude P. Dougherty 2003 ISBN 0-8132-1308-8 pages 95–96</ref>

By the beginning of the 20th century, Arthur Drews, William B. Smith and John M. Robertson became the most recognized proponents of the Christ myth theory.<ref name=Weaver45 /><ref>Van Voorst (2000) pp. 11–15</ref> However, these authors were not performing purely atheist attacks on Christianity, e.g. Drew did not consider religion as outdated, but argued for a different form of religious consciousness.<ref name=Weaver45 /> W. B. Smith argued for a symbolic interpretation of gospel episodes and contended that in a parable such as Jesus and the rich young man the rich young man never existed and symbolically referred to the land of Israel.<ref name=Weaver55 >The historical Jesus in the twentieth century, 1900-1950 by Walter P. Weaver 1999 ISBN 1-56338-280-6 pages 55-59</ref> Smith also argued that Jesus never healed anyone physically, but only spiritually cured them of their paganism.<ref name=Weaver55 /> J. M. Robertson on the other hand viewed the gospel accounts as a collection of myths gathered by a large number of anonymous authors, over time.<ref name=Weaver55 />

When Marxist–Leninist atheism became part of the state ideals in communist Russia in 1922, the theories of Arthur Drew gained prominence there.<ref name=Leslie729 /> The communist state not only supported the Christ myth theory but embellished it with scientific colloquialisms, and school textbooks began to teach that Jesus never existed, making Russia a bastion of Jesus denial.<ref name=Leslie729 >Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden page 729</ref><ref>Russia after Lenin: politics, culture and society, 1921-1929 by Vladimir N. Brovkin 1998 ISBN 0-415-17991-2 pages 96-98</ref><ref>Culture and customs of Russia by Sydney Schultze 2000 ISBN 0-313-31101-3 page 28</ref> These ideas were rebuffed in Russia by Sergei Bulgakov and Alexander Men, copies of whose book began to circulate underground via typewriters in the 1970s to reintroduce Christianity to Russia.<ref name=Leslie729 /><ref>The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Volume 1 by John Anthony McGuckin 2011 ISBN 1-4051-8539-2 pages 383-384</ref>

In the 20th century, scholars such as G. A. Wells, Alvar Ellegård, and Robert M. Price produced a number of arguments to support the Christ myth theory. Non-scholarly works on the Jesus myth theory have since been published by mass-media authors such as Doherty, Freke and Gandy. In parallel, a number of historians and biblical scholars such as Paula Fredriksen, Geza Vermes, E.P. Sanders and others involved in the quest for the historical Jesus performed detailed analyses of historical and biblical documents. Almost all of these scholars accept the existence of Jesus, but differ on the accuracy of the details of his life within the biblical narratives.<ref>Stanton, Graham. The Gospels and Jesus. Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 145 (first published 1989).

• Wells, G. A. "Jesus, Historicity of" Tom Flynn (ed.) The New Encyclopedia of Disbelief. Prometheus, 2007, p. 446.
• For a summary of the mainstream position, see Eddy, Paul R. and Boyd, Gregory A. The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition. Baker Academic, 2007, pp. 24–27.
• Also see Dickson, March 21, 2008.</ref> Robert Van Voorst stated that among "New Testament scholars and historians the theory of the non-existence of Jesus remains effectively dead as a scholarly question".<ref name= Houlden660 /><ref name= VVoorst14 >Van Voorst (2000) p. 14</ref>

The Christ myth theory is still being debated in the 21st century, with Graham Stanton stating in 2002 that the most thorough analysis of the theory had been by G. A. Wells.<ref>Stanton, Graham. The Gospels and Jesus. Oxford University Press, 2002; first published 1989, p. 143.</ref> But Wells' book Did Jesus Exist? was criticized by James D.G. Dunn in his book The Evidence for Jesus.<ref>James D.G. Dunn, 1985 The Evidence for Jesus ISBN 0-664-24698-2 page 29</ref> And the debates continue, e.g. Wells changed his views over time and while he used to argue that there was no historical evidence supporting the existence of Jesus, he later modified his position, and in his later book The Jesus Myth accepted the possible existence of Jesus based on historical sources, although still disputing the gospel portrayals of his life.<ref name= Houlden660 >Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607-856-6 page 660</ref><ref name= VVoorst14 /><ref>Familiar stranger: an introduction to Jesus of Nazareth by Michael James McClymond 2004 ISBN 0-8028-2680-6 page 163</ref><ref>For Well's views see: G.A. Wells, The Jesus Myth, Open Court 1999, ISBN 0-8126-9392-2</ref>

Religious perspectives

Template:Main By and large, the Jews of Jesus' day rejected his claim to be the Messiah, as do Jews today. For their part, Christian Church Fathers, Ecumenical Councils, Reformers, and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries. Christian sects and schisms have often been defined or characterized by competing descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, Gnostics, Mandaeans, Manichaeans, Muslims, Baha'is, and others have found prominent places for Jesus in their own religious accounts.Template:Citation needed

Christian views

Template:Main Template:Christianity Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize key elements of the shared beliefs among major denominations based on their catechetical or confessional texts.<ref name=CathLuther1 >Jackson, Gregory Lee, Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison 1993 ISBN 978-0-615-16635-3 Part One: "Areas of Agreement", pages 11-17</ref><ref>The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine by John Anthony McGuckin 2010 pages 6-7</ref><ref>Basic Christian doctrine by John H. Leith 1993 ISBN 0-664-25192-7 pages 1-2</ref> Christian views of Jesus are derived from various sources, but especially from the canonical Gospels, and New Testament letters, such as the Letters of Paul and Johannine writings. Christians predominantly hold that these works are historically true.<ref>Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum (V.19); Thomas Aquinas, Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses?; c.f. Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116; R.C. Sproul, Knowing Scripture pp. 45–61; Greg Bahnsen, A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (art. 6); Scott Foutz, Martin Luther and Scripture</ref>

These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life. Generally speaking, adhering to the Christian faith requires a belief that Jesus is the Son of God and the Christ. In the New Testament Jesus indicates that he is the Son of God by calling God his father.<ref name="OneTeacher"/> However, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both major and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.<ref>"Great Schism", Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3</ref>

Christians consider Jesus the Christ and believe that through his death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.<ref>Oxford Companion to the Bible p.649</ref> These teachings emphasize that as the willing Lamb of God, Jesus chose to suffer in Calvary as a sign of his full obedience to the will of the Eternal Father, as an "agent and servant of God".<ref name=Cullmann >The Christology of the New Testament by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 page 79</ref><ref name=anselm >The Christology of Anselm of Canterbury by Dániel Deme 2004 ISBN 0-7546-3779-4 pages 199-200</ref> The choice Jesus made thus counter-positions him as a the new and last Adam, new man of morality and obedience, in contrast to Adam's disobedience.<ref name=Pannenberg >Systematic Theology, Volume 2 by Wolfhart Pannenberg 2004 0567084663 ISBN pages 297-303</ref>

Most Christians believe that Jesus was both human and the Son of God. While there have been theological debate over the nature of Jesus, Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God incarnate, God the Son, and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to the Bible, God raised him from the dead.<ref>Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2-nb</ref> He ascended to heaven, to sit at the "Right Hand of God,"<ref>Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2-nb, Template:Bibleref2</ref> and he will return to earth again for the Last Judgment and the establishment of the Kingdom of God in the World to Come.<ref>Template:Bibleref2</ref>

Christians not only attach theological significance to the works of Jesus, but also to his name. Devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity.<ref name=Sylvester >Outlines of dogmatic theology, Volume 2 by Sylvester Hunter 2010 ISBN 1-146-98633-5 page 443</ref><ref name=Houlden >Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 ISBN 0-8264-8011-X page 426</ref> These devotions and feasts exist both in Eastern and Western Christianity.<ref name="Houlden"/>

Jewish views

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Classic texts of Rabbinic Judaism reject any notion of an anthropomorphic God. Tractate Ta'anit of the Jerusalem Talmud states explicitly that “if a man claims to be God, he is a liar.”<ref>Ta'anit (2:1)</ref> Furthermore Exodus Rabba 29 says, "'I am the first and I am the last, and beside Me there is no God' I am the first, I have no father; I am the last, I have no brother. Beside Me there is no God; I have no son."<ref>Exodus Rabba</ref>

Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus being God, or a person of a Trinity, or a mediator to God. Judaism also holds that Jesus is not the Messiah, arguing that he had not fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. According to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after Malachi, who delivered his prophesies about 420 BC/BCE.<ref>Simmons, Shraga, "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus", Retrieved 2007-04-15; "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus", Ohr Samayach — Ask the Rabbi, Retrieved 2007-04-15; "Why do not Jews believe that Jesus was the Messiah?", AskMoses.com, Retrieved 2007-04-15</ref>

The Talmud includes stories which some consider accounts of Jesus in the Talmud, although there is a spectrum<ref>Van Voorst (2000)</ref> from scholars, such as Maier (1978), who considers that only the accounts with the name Yeshu Template:Lang refer to the Christian Jesus, and that these are late redactions, to scholars such as Klausner (1925), who suggested that accounts related to Jesus in the Talmud may contain traces of the historical Jesus. However the majority of contemporary historians disregard this material as providing information on the historical Jesus.<ref name="TM1998"/> Many contemporary Talmud scholars view these as comments on the relationship between Judaism and Christians or other sectarians, rather than comments on the historical Jesus.<ref>Daniel Boyarin, Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999</ref><ref>Jeffrey Rubenstein Rabbinic Stories (The Classics of Western Spirituality) New York: The Paulist Press, 2002</ref>

The Mishneh Torah, an authoritative work of Jewish law, provides the last established consensus view of the Jewish community, in Hilkhot Melakhim 11:10–12 that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God". Template:Quote

According to Conservative Judaism, Jews who believe Jesus is the Messiah have "crossed the line out of the Jewish community".<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Reform Judaism, the modern progressive movement, states "For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an apostate".<ref>Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68, "Question 18.3.4: Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?", faqs.org. Retrieved 2007-04-15.</ref>

Islamic views

Template:Main [[File:Medieval Persian manuscript Muhammad leads Abraham Moses Jesus.jpg|thumb|Muhammad leads Jesus, Abraham, Moses and others in prayer. Medieval Persian miniature.]] In Islam, Jesus (Template:Lang-ar Template:Transl) is considered to be a Messenger of God and the Masih (Messiah) who was sent to guide the Children of Israel (banī isrā'īl) with a new scripture, the Injīl or Gospel.<ref>The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, p.158</ref> The belief in Jesus (and all other messengers of God) is required in Islam, and a requirement of being a Muslim. The Qur'an mentions Jesus twenty-five times, more often, by name, than Muhammad.<ref>"Jesus, Son of Mary" in Oxford Islamic Studies Online</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

There is no mention of Joseph in the Quran, but it includes the annunciation to Mary (Arabic: Maryam) by an angel that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin, a miraculous event which occurred by the will of God (Arabic: Allah).<ref name=RobB32 /><ref name=Peters23 /><ref name=Phyllis558 /> The details of the Mary's conception are not discussed during the angelic visit, but elsewhere the Quran states (21:91 and 66:12) that God breathed "His Spirit" into Mary while she was chaste.<ref name=RobB32 /><ref name=Peters23 >Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians by F. E. Peters 2005 Princeton University Press ISBN 0-691-12233-4 page 23</ref><ref name=Phyllis558 >Holy people of the world: a cross-cultural encyclopedia, Volume 1 by Phyllis G. Jestice 2004 ISBN 1-57607-355-6 pages 558-559</ref><ref>Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. VI, pg. 629</ref> In Islam, Jesus is called the "Spirit of God" because he was born through the action of the spirit, but that belief does not include the doctrine of his pre-existence, as it does in Christianity.<ref name=RobB32 >Christianity, Islam, and the West by Robert A. Burns, 2011, ISBN 0-7618-5559-9 page 32</ref>

Numerous other titles are given to Jesus in Islamic literature, the most common being al-Masīḥ ("the messiah"). Jesus is also, at times, called "Seal of the Israelite Prophets", because, in general Muslim belief, Jesus was the last prophet sent by God to guide the Children of Israel. Jesus is seen in Islam as a precursor to Muhammad, and is believed by Muslims to have foretold the latter's coming.<ref name="EoI-Isa"/><ref>Fasching, deChant (2001) p. 241</ref> To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to perform miracles, all by the permission of God rather than of his own power.

The Qur'an emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human being who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message. Islamic texts forbid the association of partners with God (shirk), emphasizing a strict notion of monotheism (tawhīd). Like all prophets in Islam, Jesus is considered to have been a Muslim (i.e., one who submits to the will of God), as he preached that his followers should adopt the "straight path" as commanded by God.<ref name="EoI-Isa">"Isa", Encyclopedia of Islam</ref><ref name="EoQ">Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Jesus</ref>

Islam rejects the Christian view that Jesus was God incarnate or the son of God, that he was ever crucified or resurrected, or that he ever atoned for the sins of mankind. The Qur'an says that Jesus himself never claimed any of these things, and it furthermore indicates that Jesus will deny having ever claimed divinity at the Last Judgment, and God will vindicate him.<ref>Qur'an, 5th Surah, vs. 116.</ref> According to Muslim traditions, Jesus was not crucified but instead, he was raised up by God unto the heavens. This "raising" is understood to mean through bodily ascension. Muslims believe that Jesus will return to earth near the day of judgment to restore justice.<ref name="EoI-Isa" /><ref name="EoQ" />

Ahmadiyya views

Template:Main The Ahmadiyya Movement considers Jesus a mortal man who died a natural death. According to the early 20th century writings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement),<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Jesus survived his ordeal on the cross, and after his apparent death and resurrection, he fled Palestine and migrated eastwards to further teach the gospels. Jesus eventually died a natural death of old age in Kashmir, India and is believed to be buried at Roza Bal.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Although the view of Jesus having migrated to India has also been researched in the publications of independent historians with no affiliation to the movement,<ref name="Nicolas Notovitch">http://reluctant-messenger.com/issa.htm The Life of Saint Issa, Nicolas Notovitch</ref> the Ahmadiyya Movement are the only religious organization to adopt these views as a characteristic of their faith. The general notion of Jesus in India is older than the foundation of the movement,<ref name="ShaeferCohen">Template:Cite book</ref> and is discussed at length by Grönbold<ref>Günter Grönbold, Jesus In Indien, München: Kösel 1985, ISBN 3-466-20270-1.</ref> and Klatt.<ref>Norbert Klatt, Lebte Jesus in Indien?, Göttingen: Wallstein 1988.</ref>

The movement also interprets the second coming of Christ prophesied in various religious texts would be that of a person "similar to Jesus" (mathīl-i ʿIsā). Thus, Ahmadi's consider that the founder of the movement and his prophetical character and teachings were representative of Jesus and subsequently a fulfillment of this prophecy.<ref>Template:Cite document</ref>

Bahá'í views

The Bahá'í Faith, founded in 19th-century Persia, considers Jesus, along with Muhammad, the Buddha, Krishna, and Zoroaster, and other messengers of the great religions of the world to be Manifestations of God (or prophets), with both human and divine stations.<ref name="stockman">Template:Cite journal</ref> Bahá'ís refer to this concept as Progressive Revelation, which means that God's will is revealed to mankind progressively as mankind matures and is better able to comprehend the purpose of God in creating humanity. In this view, God's word is revealed through a series of messengers: Moses, Jesus, Mohammed, Bahá'u'lláh (the founder of the Bahá'í Faith) among them. In the Book of Certitude, Bahá'u'lláh claims that these messengers have two natures: divine and human. Examining their divine nature, they are more or less the same being. However, when examining their human nature, they are individual, with distinct personalities. For example, when Jesus says "I and my Father are one",Template:Bibleref2c Bahá'ís take this quite literally, but specifically with respect to his nature as a Manifestation. When Jesus conversely stated "...And the Father himself, which hath sent me, hath borne witness of me",Template:Bibleref2c Bahá'ís see this as a simple reference to the individuality of Jesus. This divine nature, according to Bahá'u'lláh, means that any Manifestation of God can be said to be the return of a previous Manifestation, though Bahá'ís also believe that some Manifestations with specific missions return with a "new name",Template:Bibleref2c and a different, or expanded purpose. Bahá'ís believe that Bahá'u'lláh is, in both respects, the return of Jesus.

Other views

Buddhist views of Jesus differ. Some Buddhist views on Jesus including Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama<ref>Beverley, James A., Hollywood's Idol, Christianity Today, "Jesus Christ also lived previous lives", he said. "So, you see, he reached a high state, either as a Bodhisattva, or an enlightened person, through Buddhist practice or something like that". Retrieved 2007-04-20.</ref> regard Jesus as a bodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of human beings. It was recorded in 101 Zen Stories that the 14th century Zen master Gasan Jōseki, on hearing some of the sayings of Jesus in the Gospels, remarked that he was "an enlightened man", and "not far from Buddhahood".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In a letter to his daughter Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru wrote, "All over Central Asia, in Kashmir and Ladakh and Tibet and even farther north, there is a strong belief that Jesus or Isa travelled about there."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Mandaeanism, a very small Mideastern, Gnostic sect that reveres John the Baptist as God's greatest prophet, regards Jesus as a false prophet of the false Jewish god of the Old Testament, Adonai,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and likewise rejects Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad.

Manichaeism accepted Jesus as a prophet, along with Gautama Buddha and Zoroaster.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus. The creators of A Course In Miracles claim to trance-channel his spirit. However, the New Age movement generally teaches that Christhood is something that all may attain. Theosophists, from whom many New Age teachings originated, refer to Jesus of Nazareth as the Master Jesus and believe the Christ, after various incarnations occupied the body of Jesus.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

U.S. President Thomas Jefferson, a deist, created the Jefferson Bible, an early (but not complete) gospel harmony that included only Jesus' ethical teachings because he did not believe in Jesus' divinity or any of the other supernatural aspects of the Bible.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Tradition and incarnation: foundations of Christian theology by William L. Portier 1993 ISBN 0-8091-3467-5 page 218</ref>

Criticism

Template:Main Criticism of Jesus has existed since the earliest days of Christianity. The New Testament states that Jesus was criticized by the Jewish authorities of his time, e.g. the Pharisees and scribes who criticized Jesus and his disciples for not observing the Mosaic Law, not washing their hands before eating (Template:Bibleverse, Template:Bibleverse), or gathering grain on the Sabbath (Template:Bibleverse). Later critics included Celsus in the 2nd century and Porphyry who wrote a 15 volume attack on Christianity as a whole.<ref>Chadwick, H., Origen:Contra Celsum, CUP (1965), p. xxviii</ref><ref>J. Stevenson, A New Eusebius: Documents illustrating the history of the Church to AD 337 1957; New Edition, revised by W. H. C. Frend, page 257, 1987. ISBN 0-281-04268-3</ref>

Jesus continued to be criticized by Judaism, and in the early 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (the last established consensus of the Jewish community) called Jesus as a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God". Criticism of Jesus continued into the 19th century, with Nietzsche being highly critical of Jesus. For instance, Nietzsche considered Jesus' teachings anti-natural in their treatment of topics such as sexuality.<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche, 1895, Twilight of the Idols, Morality as Anti-nature, 1.</ref> In the 20th century Bertrand Russell was also critical of Jesus in Why I Am Not a Christian stated that Jesus was "not so wise as some other people have been, and He was certainly not superlatively wise."<ref>Russel, Bertrand (1927). Why I am not a Christian in "Why I am Not a Christian: And Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects," 2004, Routledge Classics, p.13.</ref>

See also

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• Views on Jesus
  • Jesuism
  • Jews for Jesus
  • Lost years of Jesus

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• Related lists
  • List of books about Jesus
  • List of founders of religious traditions
  • List of messiah claimants
  • List of people claimed to be Jesus
  • List of people who have been considered deities

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References

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Bibliography

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• The Bible
• Allison, Dale. Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1999. ISBN 0-8006-3144-7
• Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0-385-24767-2
• Template:Cite book
  • Template:Cite book
• D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo and Leon Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.
• Cohen, Shaye J.D.. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-664-21911-6
• Cohen, Shaye J.D. The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. ISBN 0-520-22693-3
• Template:Cite book
• Crossan, John Dominic.
  • The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993. ISBN 0-06-061629-6
  • Who Killed Jesus?: exposing the roots of anti-semitism in the Gospel story of the death of Jesus. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1995. ISBN 978-0-06-061671-7
• Davenport, Guy; and Urrutia, Benjamin (trans.) The Logia of Yeshua: The sayings of Jesus. Washington, DC: Counterpoint, 1996. ISBN 978-1-887178-70-9
• De La Potterie, Ignace. The hour of Jesus: The passion and the resurrection of Jesus according to John. New York: Alba House, 1989. ISBN 978-0-8189-0575-9
• Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. ISBN 0-671-11500-6
• Ehrman, Bart. The Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-514183-0
• Ehrman, Bart. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-515462-2
• Fredriksen, Paula. Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity. New York: Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0-679-76746-0
• Fredriksen, Paula. From Jesus to Christ: The origins of the New Testament images of Christ. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-300-08457-3
• Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology, revised ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. ISBN 1-56563-143-9
• Fuller, Reginald H., The Foundations of New Testament Christology. New York: Scribners, 1965. ISBN 0-227-17075-X
• Michael Grant, Jesus: An Historian’s Review of the Gospels, Scribner’s, 1977.
• Template:Cite book
• Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, New York: Anchor Doubleday,
  • V. 1, The Roots of the Problem and the Person, 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
  • V. 2, Mentor, Message, and Miracles, 1994. ISBN 0-385-46992-6
  • V. 3, Companions and Competitors, 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4
  • Newbigin, J.E.L. The Gospel In a Pluralist Society. London: SPCK, 1989.
• O'Collins, Gerald. Interpreting Jesus. "Introducing Catholic theology". London: G. Chapman; Ramsey, NJ: Paulist Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0-8091-2572-2
• Pelikan, Jaroslav. Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-300-07987-7
• Robinson, John A. T. Redating the New Testament. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001 (original 1977). ISBN 1-57910-527-0.
• Sanders, E.P. The Historical Figure of Jesus. London: Allen Lane Penguin Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0-7139-9059-1
• Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8006-2061-5
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Vermes, Géza.
  • Jesus the Jew Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973.
  • Jesus in his Jewish Context. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0-8006-3623-6
  • Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1981. ISBN 0-8006-1443-7
  • The Religion of Jesus the Jew. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1993. ISBN 0-8006-2797-0
  • Template:Cite book
  • Template:Cite document
• Wilson, A.N. Jesus. London: Pimlico, 2003. ISBN 0-7126-0697-1
• Ben Witherington III, "Primary Sources," Christian History 17 (1998)
• Wright, N.T.
  • Jesus and the Victory of God. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1997. ISBN 0-8006-2682-6
  • The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0-8006-2679-6

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External links

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• Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ In Parallel Latin & English
• "Jesus Christ." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2009
• From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians — documentary about Jesus' life and the early Church.
• The Jewish Roman World of Jesus
• Template:Worldcat id

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